Digitala Vetenskapliga Arkivet

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Towards Interdependent Digitalized Co-production in Emergencies and Crises: The Case of Volunteer First Responders
Linköping University, Department of Science and Technology, Communications and Transport Systems. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1695-6918
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Contemporary challenges such as climate change, urban development, and an increasingly unstable global security situation place growing pressure on emergency and crisis response systems. Professional response organizations must manage both large-scale crises and frequent local emergencies under limited public resources. In this context, volunteers are increasingly considered as complementary response resources. This development is supported by information and communication technologies (ICTs), which enable communication, dispatch, and coordination between formal response actors and volunteers.

In Sweden, the volunteer first responder concept was introduced about 15 years ago. Volunteers are recruited, trained, and dispatched by municipal rescue services through a mobile application to support incidents such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation, traffic accidents, drowning, and residential fires. The concept has expanded to more municipalities because of its perceived benefits, including faster response times and reduced loss of life and property damage. These volunteers can be described as semi-organized: they are coordinated by rescue services without being formally employed, placing them between organized and spontaneous volunteers.

Previous research has mainly focused on spontaneous volunteer activities in large-scale crises, often coordinated through social media. Lately, some attention has been given to more coordinated forms of volunteer involvement in local emergency response, such as volunteer first responders. However, existing knowledge is fragmented and mainly descriptive, providing limited understanding of how this form of semi-organized volunteerism should be conceptualized, how it operates in practice, what outcomes it produces, which conditions shape volunteer contributions, and whether it can be extended to large-scale crisis response.

This thesis understands the volunteer first responder concept as an ICT-enabled form of co-production of emergency response. The overall aim of the thesis is to explore how ICT-enabled co-production of emergency response emerges, functions, and develops, from local emergency response efforts to broader potential integration of volunteers in crisis response. The aim is addressed through three objectives: (1) to systematize existing knowledge on ICT-enabled co-production of emergency response, develop models of volunteer first responder initiatives, and explore how they may contribute to a broader typology of ICT-enabled co-production, (2) to describe and evaluate the outcomes of volunteer first responders’ contributions in local emergency response and identify the conditions that enable volunteers’ contributions, and (3) to explore the potential for integrating volunteer first responders into large-scale crisis response. The thesis is interdisciplinary, with ICT-enabled co-production of public services used as the main analytical lens, complemented by a socio-technical ensemble view from information systems research. It adopts a mixed-methods case study design combining a literature review, interviews, incident reports, surveys, experimental test alerts, and a scenario-based workshop.

The results show that the volunteer first responder concept can be seen as an emerging type of interdependent digitalized co-production of emergency response, in which volunteers, professional responders, and ICT solutions are mutually dependent. Existing typologies of ICT-enabled co-production do not fully capture this form of volunteerism. Three organizational models of volunteer first responder initiatives across rural and urban contexts, and with national support, are presented. They demonstrate how the volunteer initiatives emerge bottom-up and are organized through interdependent relationships between actors and evolve over time through recruitment, response, and maintenance phases. The findings show that volunteers often arrive before professionals, contribute to faster initial response, and perform a broader range of tasks than previously assumed. Their contributions are shaped by conditions such as timely ICT dispatch, training, equipment, trust, and structured collaboration, while limitations in ICT dispatch and unclear roles may reduce participation and motivation over time. The findings further indicate that volunteer first responders may complement large-scale crisis response, mainly in support and coordination roles, but that integration requires clear structures, stable ICT support for dispatch and on-site coordination, and appropriate organizational and legal frameworks.

The main scientific contribution of the thesis is the identification and presentation of a new type of ICT-enabled co-production: interdependent digitalized co-production of emergency response. This type is represented through a model showing that ICT-enabled co-production does not operate through a simple linear relationship between citizens and formal actors, but through circular and mutually dependent relationships between volunteers, municipal rescue services, ICT artifacts, and national actors. By combining this type with a socio-technical ensemble view, the thesis also shows that ICT artifacts are not merely support tools for dispatch, but subsystems in a broader coproduction system. These subsystems may enable or hinder co-production depending on their functionality and alignment with organizational routines, user needs, legal arrangements, and institutional support. Practically, the thesis provides knowledge that may support the development, coordination, and scaling of volunteer first responder initiatives in emergency and crisis response.

Abstract [sv]

Samhällsutmaningar såsom klimatförändringar, urbanisering och en instabil global säkerhetssituation bidrar till fler storskaliga kriser. Detta skapar en ökad belastning för responsorganisationer, som måste hantera dessa samtidigt som de upprätthåller beredskap för olyckor, ofta med begränsade resurser. Därför betraktas frivilliga i allt större utsträckning som en potentiell resurs i räddningsarbete. Utvecklingen stöds av informations- och kommunikationsteknik (IKT), som underlättar kommunikation och samordning mellan formella aktörer och frivilliga.

I Sverige introducerades initiativet civila insatspersoner (CIP) för drygt 15 år sedan. Civila insatspersoner rekryteras, utbildas och larmas ut av kommunal räddningstjänst via en mobilapplikation för att agera vid framför allt hjärtstopp, trafikolyckor, drunkning och mindre bränder. Initiativen har spridits till fler kommuner där man pekat på kortare insatstider och minskad förlust av liv och egendom. Civila insatspersoner kan beskrivas som semi-organiserade frivilliga, eftersom de samordnas av räddningstjänsten utan att vara formellt organiserade, vilket placerar dem mellan organiserade frivilliga och spontanfrivilliga.

Tidigare forskning har främst fokuserat på spontanfrivilligas insatser vid större kriser, där människor ofta engagerar och samordnar sig via sociala medier. Mer koordinerade former av frivillighet har fått mindre uppmärksamhet, även om fler studier kommit de senaste åren. Befintlig kunskap är fragmenterad och huvudsakligen deskriptiv. Detta gäller även civila insatspersoner. Det saknas studier om hur denna typ av koordinerad, semi-organiserad frivilliginsats kan konceptualiseras. Vidare saknas kunskap om hur initiativen fungerar i praktiken, vilka effekter de civila insatspersonernas insatser har, vilka förutsättningar som möjliggör deras deltagande, samt om och i vilken utsträckning de kan integreras i hanteringen av större kriser.

I avhandlingen studeras initiativen med civila insatspersoner som en IKT-aktiverad form av samproduktion (Eng: ICT-enabled co-production) av räddningsinsatser. Det övergripande syftet är att undersöka hur IKT-aktiverad samproduktion av räddningsinsatser uppstår, fungerar och utvecklas, från lokala räddningsinsatser till en bredare potentiell integrering av frivilliga i krishanteringsinsatser. Syftet innefattar: (1) att systematisera befintlig kunskap om IKT-aktiverad samproduktion av räddningsinsatser, utveckla modeller för initiativ med civila insatspersoner och utforska hur dessa initiativ kan bidra till en bredare typologi för IKT-aktiverad samproduktion, (2) att beskriva och utvärdera resultaten av frivilliga förstainsatspersoners bidrag i lokala räddningsinsatser samt identifiera de förutsättningar som möjliggör deras bidrag, och (3) att undersöka potentialen för att integrera frivilliga förstainsatspersoner i storskalig krisrespons. Avhandlingen är tvärvetenskaplig och använder IKT-aktiverad samproduktion av offentliga tjänster som huvudsaklig analytisk lins för att förstå hur frivilliga bidrar till räddningsinsatser genom samordning med professionella responsaktörer. Vidare tillämpas det sociotekniska ensemble-perspektivet (Eng: socio-technical ensemble view) från forskningsdisciplinen informationssystem för att analysera hur IKT-lösningar möjliggör eller hindrar samordning av civila insatspersoner. Avhandlingen har en fallstudiedesign med mixade metoder, inklusive litteraturöversikt, intervjuer, insatsrapporter, experimentella testlarm, enkäter och en scenariobaserad workshop.

Resultaten visar att konceptet civila insatspersoner utgör en framväxande form av "interdependent digitalized co-production" av räddningsinsatser, där frivilliga, professionella aktörer och IKT-lösningar är ömsesidigt beroende. Denna form skiljer sig från existerande typologier av IKT-aktiverad samproduktion (ICT-enabled co-production) i flera aspekter. Tre organisatoriska modeller för hur man kan arbeta med de här initiativen i landsbygds- och stadsmiljö och med nationellt stöd presenteras. Modellerna visar hur initiativen växer fram underifrån och kan utvecklas i faserna rekrytering, respons och underhåll. Frivilliga anländer ofta före professionella aktörer, bidrar till snabbare initiala insatser och utför fler uppgifter på skadeplats än vad tidigare forskning funnit. Deras förmåga att bidra är beroende av tidig utlarmning med ett fungerande och effektivt IKT-stöd (app), utbildning, utrustning och strukturerad samverkan, medan tekniska begränsningar och otydliga roller kan minska deltagande och motivation. Resultaten indikerar även att civila insatspersoner kan fungera som en kompletterande resurs vid storskaliga kriser, främst i stöd- och samordningsroller. Detta kräver dock tydliga strukturer, stabil teknik för kommunikation samt lämpliga organisatoriska och rättsliga ramverk.

Avhandlingens huvudsakliga vetenskapliga bidrag är identifiering och presentation av en ny typ av IKT-aktiverad samproduktion: interdependent digitalized co-production of emergency response. Denna typ representeras genom en modell som visar att IKT-aktiverad samproduktion inte fungerar genom en enkel linjär relation mellan civila och formella aktörer, utan genom cirkulära och beroende relationer mellan frivilliga, kommunala räddningstjänster, IKT-artefakter och nationella aktörer. Genom att kombinera denna typ med ett sociotekniskt ensemble-perspektiv visar avhandlingen också att IKT-artefakter inte enbart är stödverktyg för utlarmning, utan delsystem i ett bredare samproduktionssystem. De kan möjliggöra eller hindra samproduktion beroende på deras funktionalitet, utformning och anpassning till organisatoriska rutiner, användarbehov, rättsliga arrangemang och institutionellt stöd. Praktiskt bidrar avhandlingen med kunskap som kan stödja utveckling, samordning och skalning av initiativ med civila insatspersoner i räddningsinsatser och krishantering.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2026. , p. 88
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2533
Keywords [en]
Emergency response, Crisis response, Co-production of public services, ICT-enabled co-production, Volunteer first responders, Digitalization, Socio-technical ensemble
National Category
Information Systems, Social aspects
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-227241DOI: 10.3384/9789181186123ISBN: 9789181186116 (print)ISBN: 9789181186123 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-227241DiVA, id: diva2:2097889
Public defence
2026-10-02, K3, Kåkenhus, Campus Norrköping, Norrköping, 13:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Funding agency: The Swedish Civil Defence and Resilience Agency (MCF) through the Center for Advanced Research in Emergency Response – CARER

Available from: 2026-09-02 Created: 2026-09-02 Last updated: 2026-09-02Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Digitalized Co-production and Volunteerism in Emergency Response: a Literature Review
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Digitalized Co-production and Volunteerism in Emergency Response: a Literature Review
2023 (English)In: Proceedings of the 20th International ISCRAM Conference / [ed] Jaziar Radianti; Ioannis Dokas; Nicolas Lalone; Deepak Khazanchi, Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM , 2023, p. 738-750Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

ICT-enabled or digitalized co-production of public services has become increasingly relevant to emergency response and crisis management. This study provides a literature review on this phenomenon, exploring both large-scale crises and frequent emergencies. We found that research in the domain is scarce and focuses mainly on the phenomenon in terms of digital volunteerism. In large-scale crises, they mostly refer to spontaneous forms of volunteering, and in smaller emergencies, to more organized volunteers that collaborate with a response organization over time. Similarities to digitalized co-production in the public sector generally include financial, administrative, ICT, and demographic factors. Differences include, e.g., aspects of coordination, support, and processing by formal actors. We argue that there are benefits of adding a theoretical co-production perspective to digital volunteerism in emergency response and that our literature review can guide future research on models and (the double) use of volunteers in both kinds of emergencies.   

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, ISCRAM, 2023
Series
ISCRAM International Conference on Information Systems, E-ISSN 2411-3387
Keywords
Digital, co-production, volunteers, emergency response, crisis response
National Category
Information Systems, Social aspects Information Systems, Social aspects
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-197659 (URN)979-8-218-21749-5 (ISBN)
Conference
20th Annual Global Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management (ISCRAM 2023), 28-31 May Omaha, USA
Available from: 2023-09-06 Created: 2023-09-06 Last updated: 2026-09-02
2. Towards a New Typology of Digitalized Co-production: Implementing Local Emergency Response Initiatives Nationwide
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Towards a New Typology of Digitalized Co-production: Implementing Local Emergency Response Initiatives Nationwide
2024 (English)In: Digital Government: Research and Practice, E-ISSN 2639-0175, Vol. 5, no 4, p. 1-24Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In Sweden, a decade ago, digitalized co-production emergency response initiatives of a hybrid bottom-up type emerged. They targeted local efforts to recruit groups of citizens to provide first respons for other citizens in accidents. Benefits in terms of shorter response times, saved lives, reduced human suffering, and material damage have been demonstrated. Recently, national authorities recognized the need to support the initiatives to expand to all rescue services, and the potential to scale up the use of citizen first responders, also in large-scale crisis management and as part of civil preparedness. Previous research has studied the initiatives and developed three models aimed at supporting the implementation of digitalized co-production. In this study, we report from the initial phase of the nationwide effort, carry out an initial evaluation, and present revised models. The models are adapted to rural versus urban settings and complemented with a model providing national support. Information and communication technology plays a crucial role in all of them. We define the hybrid type as interdependent digitalized co-production where government citizen sourcing is not direct but includes the intermediate level of the rescue services. Implications are discussed, e.g., on how to achieve a balance between centralization and decentralization.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Association for Computing Machinery, 2024
Keywords
Digitalization, emergency response, co-production, citizen engagement
National Category
Information Systems, Social aspects
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-207704 (URN)10.1145/3696007 (DOI)2-s2.0-85213278627 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency
Available from: 2024-09-17 Created: 2024-09-17 Last updated: 2026-09-02Bibliographically approved
3. Digitalized Co-production of Emergency Response: Dispatch and On-Site Work by Volunteer First Responders
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Digitalized Co-production of Emergency Response: Dispatch and On-Site Work by Volunteer First Responders
2024 (English)In: Information Technology in Disaster Risk Reduction: (ITDRR 2023 2023) / [ed] Dugdale, J., Gjøsæter, T., Uchida,O., 2024, Vol. 706, p. 20-37Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Using volunteers as first responders in frequent emergencies has during the recent decade received increased attention from research and practice. In this study, we focus on the ICT dispatch of volunteer first responders, and their onsite work and collaboration, e.g., as to ICT dispatch, response rates, response times, time-on-site, and tasks performed. We use incident reports filled in by the volunteers and the theoretical lens of digitalized co-production. The results point at a positive effect of using volunteers as first responders, e.g., shortened response times and concrete contributions in most cases, indicating cost-effectiveness. The ICT for dispatch, however, is a challenging part of the co-production, lacking above all, in geofencing, but also in functionality for dynamic resource allocation. Most of the volunteers are willing to contribute to large-scale crisis management, making them a future useful resource in this context. Implications for digitalized co-production are discussed.

Series
IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology ((IFIPAICT,volume 706)), ISSN 1868-4238, E-ISSN 1868-422X
Keywords
ICT, Digitalized co-production, Emergency response, volunteer
National Category
Information Systems, Social aspects Public Administration Studies
Research subject
Economic Information Systems; Disaster Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-206923 (URN)10.1007/978-3-031-64037-7_2 (DOI)001297954000002 ()2-s2.0-85199641079 (Scopus ID)9783031640377 (ISBN)9783031640360 (ISBN)
Conference
8th International Conference on Information Technology in Disaster Risk Reduction (ITDRR), Tokyo, JAPAN, DEC 04-06, 2023
Available from: 2024-08-26 Created: 2024-08-26 Last updated: 2026-09-02
4. From Dispatch to Impact: Evaluating ICT-enabled Co-production of Emergency Response
Open this publication in new window or tab >>From Dispatch to Impact: Evaluating ICT-enabled Co-production of Emergency Response
Show others...
2025 (English)In: International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, E-ISSN 2212-4209, Vol. 130, article id 105833Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This study explores the conditions and outcomes of information and communication technology (ICT)-enabled co-production of emergency response through the involvement of volunteer first responders in frequent emergencies. It focuses on a growing Swedish initiative where volunteers are recruited, trained, and equipped by local rescue services and dispatched to pre-defined smallscale incidents via mobile applications. Using a mixed-methods approach, we assess the volunteers' on-site performance and the conditions influencing their engagement. The results show that the volunteers often arrive before professionals and perform tasks such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), traffic control, and fire extinguishing, contributing to reduced first response times and improved incident management. The volunteers also remain active after professional emergency responders arrive, reflecting a growing relationship of trust and shared responsibility. Key enabling factors include reliable ICT dispatch systems, proper training, sufficient equipment, and collaboration with professionals on-and off-site. Delayed alerts, app malfunctions, and limited volunteer influence over strategic decisions may, on the other hand, affect long-term motivation and performance. The study also reveals strong willingness among the volunteers to contribute to large-scale crisis response, provided that clear roles, coordination, and preparedness mechanisms are in place. In a broader public sector perspective, the findings can be seen as interdependent digitalised co-production, which has characteristics that previous typologies of ICT-enabled co-production do not capture, and which require increased institutional support and integrated ICT systems. The findings can also be used in the integration of volunteers into formal response systems.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
ELSEVIER, 2025
Keywords
Volunteer first responders; Emergency response; Crisis management; ICT; Co-production; Digitalisation
National Category
Public Administration Studies
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-219195 (URN)10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105833 (DOI)001597554800001 ()2-s2.0-105018209194 (Scopus ID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB)

Available from: 2025-11-03 Created: 2025-11-03 Last updated: 2026-09-02

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