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Unequal Valuations of Lives and What to Do About It: The Role of Identifiability, Numbers, and Age in Charitable Giving
Linköping University, Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning, Psychology. Linköping University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences.
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Hur liv värderas olika och vad man kan göra åt det : Rollen av identifierbarhet, antal och ålder i välgörenhetsgivande (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Many people choose to donate money to help victims of humanitarian crises. However, people’s donation decisions often fail to reflect that all victims are equally valuable to help. Instead, some victims seem to be favored. This thesis aims to better understand valuations of lives by looking at how people respond to charity appeals that differ on three factors: level of identifiability (if there is an identified victim or not), numbers in need (if there is one, few, or many victims in need), and age (if the victim is a child or an adult). This thesis also tests two kinds of interventions in charitable giving aimed to make people value lives more equally regarding numbers in need and the identifiability of victims. 

Paper I investigated how the identifiable victim effect (i.e., more willingness to help an identified victim than unidentified victims) influences people’s donation decisions if they are reminded of alternative uses of money (i.e., opportunity cost). In two studies, participants (N = 2397) saw a charity appeal that either included an identified victim or not, while either receiving an opportunity cost reminder or not. The results showed that for a one-time donation decision, people became less willing to donate when reminded of opportunity cost, but mainly for non-identified charity appeals.   

Paper II investigated how the victim’s age relates to the identifiable victim effect. In three studies, participants (N = 1508) saw a charity appeal that either helped children or adults, and either included an identified victim or not. The results showed that people did not donate more if the charity appeal included an identified victim, regardless of whether the victim was a child or an adult, but that people were more motivated to help or more willing to donate to children than adults.   

Paper III investigated two types of deliberation interventions for the singularity effect (i.e., increased willingness to help a single identified victim over a group of identified victims). In two studies, participants (N = 900) saw a charity appeal that either depicted one or eight identified children in need, and either got an intervention prompting them to rely on deliberate thinking, an intervention asking them to rate the importance of four decision-relevant attributes, or no intervention at all. The singularity effect was found in control conditions, but not in either of the intervention conditions. However, this was at the expense of decreasing the help to the single victim, without increasing help to the group of victims.  

Paper IV investigated the unit asking intervention in relation to victim identifiability and the number of victims in need. In three studies, participants (N = 4206) either underwent the unit asking intervention, in which they indicated a hypothetical amount to one victim before answering how much to donate to a group of victims, or no intervention. In the first two studies, participants also saw a charity appeal that either included an identified victim – with varying levels of identifiability – or not. In the third study, participants saw an appeal that either included the picture of one or five children, and involved providing help to either 20 or 200 children. People in control conditions were unaffected by whether the charity appeal included an identified victim or not, and they did not donate more when more victims were in need. However, participants in the unit asking conditions donated more when more victims were in need and donated more regardless of the level of identifiability. 

In conclusion, this thesis shows that people’s donation decisions are affected to different extents by the information in the charity appeal related to identifiability, numbers in need, and age – which can result in unequal valuations of lives. This thesis also shows that interventions, especially the unit asking method, can make valuations of lives more equal. Taken together, this thesis contributes to a broader understanding of how people make decisions regarding charity and how interventions can impact such decision-making processes.   

Abstract [sv]

Många människor donerar pengar för att hjälpa offer för humanitära kriser. Däremot tycks människors donationsbeslut sällan reflektera att alla offer är lika mycket värda att hjälpa. I stället tycks vissa offer värderas högre. Denna avhandling syftar till att få en bättre förståelse kring värdering av liv genom att undersöka hur människor svarar på välgörenhetsannonser som skiljer sig åt i tre aspekter: nivå av identifierbarhet (om det finns ett identifierat offer eller inte), antal i behov av hjälp (om det är ett, några få eller många offer i behov) och ålder (om offret är ett barn eller en vuxen). Avhandlingen undersöker även två typer av interventioner som ämnar att öka lika värderingar av liv gällande antal i behov och identifierbarhet av offer.   

Papper I undersökte hur identifierbarhetseffekten (d.v.s. större villighet att hjälpa ett identifierat offer än oidentifierade offer) påverkar människors donationsbeslut om de påminns om andra sätt att använda pengarna på (d.v.s. alternativkostnad). I två studier fick deltagare (N = 2397) se en välgörenhetsannons som antingen inkluderade ett identifierat offer eller inte, medan de antingen fick en påminnelse om alternativkostnad eller inte. Resultatet visade att deltagare blev mindre villiga att donera vid engångsbeslut om de påmindes om alternativkostnad, men huvudsakligen i relation till välgörenhetsannonser utan ett identifierat offer.    

Papper II undersökte hur identifierbarhetseffekten påverkas av offrets ålder. I tre studier fick deltagare (N = 1508) se en välgörenhetsannons som antingen hjälpte barn eller vuxna, och som antingen inkluderade ett identifierat offer eller inte. Resultatet visade att deltagare inte donerade mer om välgörenhetsannonsen inkluderade ett identifierat offer, oavsett om offret var ett barn eller en vuxen, men att deltagare var mer motiverade att hjälpa eller donera till barn än till vuxna.   

Papper III undersökte två typer av interventioner som betonar eftertänksamhet för singularitetseffekten (d.v.s. större villighet att hjälpa ett identifierat offer än en grupp identifierade offer). I två studier fick deltagare (N = 900) se en välgörenhetsannons som antingen presenterade ett eller åtta identifierade barn i behov av hjälp, och fick antingen en intervention som uppmanade dem att vara eftertänksamma, en intervention som lät de skatta hur viktiga fyra beslutsrelevanta attribut var, eller ingen intervention alls.

Singularitetseffekten hittades i kontrollbetingelserna, men inte i någon av interventionsbetingelserna. Däremot var detta på bekostnad av att hjälpen till det enskilda barnet minskade, utan att hjälpen till gruppen ökade.  

Papper IV undersökte en unit asking intervention i relation till identifierbarhet och antal offer i behov. I tre studier fick deltagare (N = 4206) antingen genomgå en unit asking intervention, där de först fick uppge ett hypotetiskt donationsbelopp till ett offer innan de skulle uppge hur mycket de ville donera till en grupp offer, eller ingen intervention. I de första två studierna fick deltagare även se en välgörenhetsannons som antingen inkluderade ett identifierat offer – med varierande grad av identifierbarhet – eller inte. I den tredje studien fick deltagare se en välgörenhetsannons som antingen inkluderade en bild på ett eller fem barn, i en annons som hjälpte antingen 20 eller 200 barn. Deltagare i kontrollbetingelsen påverkades inte av om annonsen inkluderade ett identifierat offer eller inte, och de donerade inte mer när fler offer var i behov av hjälp. Deltagare i unit asking betingelserna donerade däremot mer när fler offer var i behov av hjälp och donerade mer oavsett nivå av identifierarbarhet.

Sammantaget visar denna avhandling att människors donationsbeslut påverkas till olika grad av informationen som presenteras i välgörenhetsannonser relaterat till identifierbarhet, antal i behov och ålder – vilket kan resultera i att offer värderas olika. Avhandlingen visar också att interventioner, framför allt unit asking interventionen, kan minska tendensen att liv värderas olika i donationsbeslut. Denna avhandling bidrar därmed till en större förståelse för hur människor fattar beslut gällande välgörenhetsgivande och hur interventioner kan påverka sådana beslutsfattandeprocesser.    

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2022. , p. 88
Series
Linköping Studies in Arts and Sciences, ISSN 0282-9800 ; 842Linköping Studies in Behavioural Science, ISSN 1654-2029 ; 246
Keywords [en]
Charitable giving, Donation decision, Identifiable victim effect, Singularity effect, Age effect, Compassion fade, Scope-insensitivity, Intervention, Deliberation, Unit asking method
Keywords [sv]
Välgörenhetsgivande, Donationsbeslut, Identifierbarhetseffekt, Singularitetseffekt, Ålderseffekt, Intervention
National Category
Psychology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-189989DOI: 10.3384/9789179295226ISBN: 9789179295219 (print)ISBN: 9789179295226 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-189989DiVA, id: diva2:1710912
Public defence
2022-12-16, KEY1, Key-Building, Campus Valla, Linköping, 13:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2022-11-15 Created: 2022-11-15 Last updated: 2022-11-30Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Opportunity Cost in Monetary Donation Decisions to Non-identified and Identified Victims
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Opportunity Cost in Monetary Donation Decisions to Non-identified and Identified Victims
2020 (English)In: Frontiers in Psychology, E-ISSN 1664-1078, Vol. 10, article id 3035Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Do people consider alternative uses of money (i.e., opportunity cost) when asked to donate to a charitable cause? To answer this question, we examined the effect of providing versus not providing participants with an opportunity cost reminder when they are asked to donate money to causes with identified and non-identified victims. The results of two studies show that when making one-time donation decisions, people become less willing to donate to charity when reminded of opportunity cost, but mainly for non-identified victims. Moreover, framing the opportunity cost reminder as prosocial versus proself did not influence willingness to donate. Overall, our evidence suggests that opportunity cost reminders influence peoples donation behavior depending on whether charities identify supported victims or not.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
FRONTIERS MEDIA SA, 2020
Keywords
charitable giving; opportunity cost; donation; decision-making; identified victim; framing
National Category
Peace and Conflict Studies Other Social Sciences not elsewhere specified
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-163664 (URN)10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03035 (DOI)000510918300001 ()32038400 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2020-02-17 Created: 2020-02-17 Last updated: 2025-02-20
2. Helping the child or the adult? Systematically testing the identifiable victim effect for child and adult victims
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Helping the child or the adult? Systematically testing the identifiable victim effect for child and adult victims
2021 (English)In: Social influence, ISSN 1553-4510, E-ISSN 1553-4529, Vol. 16, no 1, p. 78-92Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Is the identifiable victim effect (IVE; helping a single identified victim more than a statistical victim) stronger for child victims than adult victims? In this paper, we test the effect of identifying a victim and whether that victim is a child or adult on helping motivation and donation behaviors. In three studies (N = 1508) with different samples from different countries, we find no main effect of identifiability on any of our measures, and no support that the IVE mainly occurs for children. However, we find an age effect; child victims receive more help (studies 1a-1b) or evoke a greater motivation to help (study 2) than adult victims.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Routledge; Taylor & Francis, 2021
Keywords
Identifiable victim effect; identified victim; child and adult; age effect; charitable donation
National Category
Applied Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-180904 (URN)10.1080/15534510.2021.1995482 (DOI)000711345400001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Research Council (VR)Swedish Research Council [Vetenskapsradet 2014-1158]

Available from: 2021-11-09 Created: 2021-11-09 Last updated: 2022-11-15
3. Thinking, good and bad? Deliberative thinking and the singularity effect in charitable giving: Deliberative thinking and the singularity effect in charitable giving
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Thinking, good and bad? Deliberative thinking and the singularity effect in charitable giving: Deliberative thinking and the singularity effect in charitable giving
2022 (English)In: Judgment and Decision Making, E-ISSN 1930-2975, Vol. 17, no 1, p. 14-30Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Can deliberation increase charitable giving when giving is impulsive (i.e., a one-time small gift in response to an immediate appeal)? We conduct two studies in Israel and Sweden to compare two forms of deliberation, unguided and guided, in their ability to decrease the singularity effect (i.e., giving more to one than many victims), often evident in impulsive giving. Under unguided deliberation, participants were instructed to simply think hard before making a donation decision whereas participants in the guided deliberation condition were asked to think how much different prespecified decision attributes should influence their decision. We find that both types of deliberation reduce the singularity effect, as people no longer value the single victim higher than the group of victims. Importantly, this is driven by donations being decreased under deliberation only to the single victim, but not the group of victims. Thus, deliberation affects donations negatively by overshadowing the affective response, especially in situations in which affect is greatest (i.e., to a single victim). Last, the results show that neither type of deliberation significantly reversed the singularity effect, as people did not help the group significantly more than the single victim. This means that deliberate thinking decreased the overall willingness to help, leading to a lower overall valuation of people in need.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Tallahassee, FL, United States: Society for Judgment & Decision Making, 2022
Keywords
charity, singularity effect, deliberation, affect, identified victim
National Category
Applied Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-182787 (URN)10.1017/S1930297500009001 (DOI)000748741200001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies: National Science Foundation (NSF)[1757315]

Available from: 2022-02-11 Created: 2022-02-11 Last updated: 2025-02-03Bibliographically approved

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