Digitala Vetenskapliga Arkivet

Change search
CiteExportLink to record
Permanent link

Direct link
Cite
Citation style
  • apa
  • ieee
  • modern-language-association-8th-edition
  • vancouver
  • Other style
More styles
Language
  • de-DE
  • en-GB
  • en-US
  • fi-FI
  • nn-NO
  • nn-NB
  • sv-SE
  • Other locale
More languages
Output format
  • html
  • text
  • asciidoc
  • rtf
The value of evaluating and implementing pharmaceuticals
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Society and Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.
2021 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Pharmaceuticals are a central part of high-quality health care and a resource for improving population health. However, high prices set by private companies who develop and own the rights to new pharmaceuticals question the value that they contribute to the health care system. Publicly funded health care systems need to get the most from limited health care resources, which has become even more apparent in recent years with ageing populations, rapid technological development, and more recently the impact of COVID-19. Reducing pharmaceutical prices increase the current value that they offer to health care systems, but price reduction also decreases incentives to develop future treatments. Hence, the health care systems must balance the objective of improving the value from the treatments available today and incentivising the development of future treatments. 

Governments and health care decision makers use a variety of policies to control prices and use of pharmaceuticals. However, these policies are rarely the focus of formal analysis and their effect on short- and long-term population health is often unclear. The aim of this thesis was to investigate how policies that control pharmaceutical prices and implementation impact population health and incentives for pharmaceutical research and development (R&D). 

The first study in this thesis outlines a framework for assessing the effect of pharmaceutical policies on population health and pharmaceutical earnings and shows that price reducing policies can increase the current value of pharmaceuticals to health care systems while lowering R&D incentives. The design of specific policies determines the impact as well as the distribution of the gains of lower prices across patients, health care providers, pharmacies, and other affected parties. The second study analyses the trade-off between accuracy and cost of the cost-effectiveness appraisals for pharmaceuticals by viewing it as a diagnostic test that aims to identify costeffective treatments. The study identifies some policy relevant conclusions, including that the process should be flexible over time and depend on characteristics of the treatment undergoing assessment. Study three, investigating the impact of regional implementation variation of the antiplatelet ticagrelor, found that an additional 1,100 Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs) could have been gained from achieving equal implementation across health care regions. This represents a value of SEK 285 million from avoiding regional implementation variation of ticagrelor (given a value of SEK 250,000 per QALY). The study also shows that avoiding delays due to sequential decisions on reimbursement, treatment guidelines, and funding could have significant value. Finally, the fourth study investigates the comparative effectiveness of ticagrelor using observational data collected as part of routine clinical care in the SWEDEHEART registry. The study finds similar reduction in mortality as observed in the pivotal randomised clinical trial of ticagrelor, the PLATO trial. Furthermore, the importance of appropriate methods for observational research on comparative effectiveness are demonstrated, highlighting the importance of using appropriate methods when investigating the effectiveness of treatments used in clinical practice. 

In conclusion, this thesis shows the importance of analysing and understanding the effect of policies that control price and implementation of pharmaceuticals, whether the goal is to maximise the value from currently available pharmaceuticals or to also incentivise the development of new pharmaceuticals. Although the value of improving implementation may not be as obvious or tangible as savings from lowering pharmaceutical prices, improving implementation may contribute more to population health than reinvesting potential savings from price reductions. 

Abstract [sv]

Läkemedel är en viktig komponent i dagens hälso- och sjukvård och en resurs som bidrar till att förbättra hälsan i befolkningen. Om läkemedelspriserna som sätts av de privata företag som utvecklar och äger rättigheterna till nya läkemedel är höga kan dock värdet som läkemedlen bidrar med till hälso- och sjukvården ifrågasättas. Offentligt finansierade hälso- och sjukvårdssystem behöver få ut mesta möjliga av begränsade resurser, vilket har blivit ännu tydligare de senaste åren med en åldrande befolkning, snabb teknisk utveckling och en global pandemi. Att sänka läkemedelspriserna kan öka värdet som läkemedlen bidrar med till hälso och sjukvårdssystemen idag. Samtidigt kan lägre priser minska incitamenten att utveckla framtida behandlingar. Därför måste hälso- och sjukvårdssystemen hitta en balans mellan att maximera värdet från de behandlingar som finns tillgängliga idag och att samtidigt stimulera utvecklingen av framtida behandlingar. 

Myndigheter och beslutsfattare inom hälso- och sjukvården använder olika policyer för att kontrollera priser på och användning av läkemedel. Dessa policyer är dock sällan föremål för formell analys och hur de påverkar hälsan på kort och lång sikt är ofta oklart. Syftet med den här avhandlingen var att undersöka hur policyer som styr läkemedelspriser samt implementering av nya läkemedel kan påverka både hälsan i befolkningen och incitament för forskning och utveckling (FoU) av läkemedel. 

Den första studien beskriver ett ramverk för att bedöma effekten av läkemedelspolicyer på både hälsa och läkemedelsintäkter. Studien visar att policyer som inkluderar prissänkningar kan öka värdet som läkemedel bidrar med för hälso- och sjukvårdssystemen idag samtidigt som FoU incitamenten minskar. Utformningen av specifika policyer avgör storleken på effekterna och fördelningen av de vinster som lägre priser kan ge för patienter, vårdgivare, apotek och andra berörda parter. Den andra studien analyserar avvägningen mellan hur noggranna och hur kostsamma kostnadseffektivitetsbedömningar av läkemedel skall vara. Detta görs genom att betrakta bedömningen som ett diagnostiskt test med syftet att identifiera kostnadseffektiva behandlingar. Studien identifierar några policyrelevanta slutsatser, till exempel att processen bör vara flexibel över tid och baseras på egenskaperna hos behandlingen som är föremål för bedömning. Studie tre undersöker effekterna av regionala variationer vid implementeringen av trombocythämmaren ticagrelor. Studien visar att ytterligare 1 100 kvalitetsjusterade levnadsår (QALYs) kunde ha vunnits om alla regioner hade implementerat ticagrelor i samma utsträckning som regionerna med högst implementering. Värdet av att undvika regionala variationer vid implementering av ticagrelor skulle därmed kunna skattas till åtminstone 275 miljoner kronor (om en QALY antas vara värd 250 000 kronor). Studien visar också att det kan uppstå betydande kostnader i termer av förlorad hälsa om implementeringen styrs av sekventiella beslut där behandlingsriktlinjer och tillgänglig finansiering inte är synkade med beslutet att subventionera läkemedlet. I den fjärde studien undersöks effekten av ticagrelor i klinisk praxis genom att använda data från kvalitetsregistret SWEDEHEART. Studien finner att mortalitetsrisken när ticagrelor ges i rutinsjukvård reduceras i samma utsträckning som i den randomiserade PLATO-studien. Studien visar också på vikten av att använda lämpliga metoder för observationsforskning som undersöker kausala behandlingseffekter av läkemedel i klinisk praxis. 

Sammanfattningsvis visar avhandlingen på vikten av att analysera och förstå effekten av policyer som styr pris på och implementering av läkemedel, oavsett om målet är att maximera värdet av tillgängliga läkemedel eller om hänsyn och så skall tas till att stimulera utvecklingen av nya läkemedel i framtiden. Värdet av att förbättra användningen av effektiva och kostnadseffektiva läkemedel är inte lika uppenbart eller konkret som besparingar från sänkta läkemedelspriser men förefaller kunna bidra till förbättrad hälsa i befolkningen både på kort och lång sikt.  

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2021. , p. 101
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1772
National Category
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-175364DOI: 10.3384/diss.diva-175364ISBN: 9789179296858 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-175364DiVA, id: diva2:1548084
Public defence
2021-05-28, Belladonna, Building 511, Campus US, Linköping, 13:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2021-04-29 Created: 2021-04-29 Last updated: 2021-12-28Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Getting value today and incentivising for the future: Pharmaceutical development and healthcare policies
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Getting value today and incentivising for the future: Pharmaceutical development and healthcare policies
2017 (English)In: Nordic Journal of Health Economics, ISSN 1892-9729, E-ISSN 1892-9710, Vol. 5, no 1, p. 77-96Article, review/survey (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

To manage the challenge of limited healthcare resources and unlimited demand for healthcare, decision makers utilise a variety of demand side policies, such as health technology appraisals and international reference pricing to regulate price and utilisation. By controlling price and utilisation demand side policies determine the earnings potential, and hence the incentives to invest in research and development (R&D) of new technologies. However, the impact of demand side policies on R&D incentives is seldom formally assessed. Based on the key assumption that intellectual property rights, i.e. patents, and expected rent are key drivers of pharmaceutical R&D, this work outlines a framework illustrating the link between demand side policies and pharmaceutical R&D incentives. By analysing how policies impact expected rent and consumer surplus, the framework is used to understand how commonly used demand side policies (including timing and length of reimbursement process, international reference pricing, parallel trade, and sequential adoption into clinical practice) may influence R&D incentives. The analysis demonstrates that delayed reimbursement decisions as well as sequential adoption into clinical practise may in fact reduce both expected rent and consumer surplus. It is also demonstrated how international reference pricing is likely to increase consumer surplus at the expense of lower rent and thus lower R&D incentives. Although this work illustrates the importance of considering how demand side policies may impact long-term R&D incentives, it is important to note that the purpose has not been to prescribe which demand side policies should be utilised or how. Rather, the main contribution is to illustrate the need for a structured approach to the analysis of the complex, and at times highly politicised question of how demand side policies ultimately influence population health, both in the short and in the long term.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
University of Oslo, 2017
Keywords
pharmaceutical market, pharmaceutical regulation, R&D incentives, intellectual property rights
National Category
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-154061 (URN)10.5617/njhe.888 (DOI)
Available from: 2019-01-24 Created: 2019-01-24 Last updated: 2021-12-28
2. How to design the cost‐effectiveness appraisal process of new healthcare technologies to maximise population health: A conceptual framework
Open this publication in new window or tab >>How to design the cost‐effectiveness appraisal process of new healthcare technologies to maximise population health: A conceptual framework
2018 (English)In: Health Economics, ISSN 1057-9230, E-ISSN 1099-1050, Vol. 27, no 2, p. e41-e54Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This paper presents a conceptual framework to analyse the design of the cost‐effectiveness appraisal process of new healthcare technologies. The frameworkcharacterises the appraisal processes as a diagnostic test aimed at identifyingcost‐effective (true positive) and non‐cost‐effective (true negative) technologies.Using the framework, factors that influence the value of operating an appraisalprocess, in terms of net gain to popula tion health, are identified. The frame-work is used to gain insight into current policy questions including (a) howrigorous the process should be, (b) who should have the burden of proof, and(c) how optimal design changes when allowing for appeals, price reductions,resubmissions, and re‐evaluations.The paper demonstrates that there is no one optimal appraisal process and theprocess should be adapted over time and to the specific technology underassessment. Optimal design depends on country‐specific features of (future)technologies, for example, effect, price, and size of the patient population,which might explain the difference in appraisal processes across countries. Itis shown that burden of pro of should be placed on the producers and that theimpact of price reductions and patient access schemes on the producer's pricesetting should be considered when designing the appraisal process.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
John Wiley & Sons, 2018
Keywords
cost‐effectiveness appraisal and decision making, economic evaluation, health technology appraisal
National Category
Health Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-140899 (URN)10.1002/hec.3561 (DOI)000428523400004 ()
Available from: 2017-09-14 Created: 2017-09-14 Last updated: 2021-04-29
3. Subcategorizing the Expected Value of Perfect Implementation to Identify When and Where to Invest in Implementation Initiatives
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Subcategorizing the Expected Value of Perfect Implementation to Identify When and Where to Invest in Implementation Initiatives
2020 (English)In: Medical decision making, ISSN 0272-989X, E-ISSN 1552-681X, Vol. 40, no 3, p. 327-338Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Purpose. Clinical practice variations and low implementation of effective and cost-effective health care technologies are a key challenge for health care systems and may lead to suboptimal treatment and health loss for patients. The purpose of this work was to subcategorize the expected value of perfect implementation (EVPIM) to enable estimation of the absolute and relative value of eliminating slow, low, and delayed implementation. Methods. Building on the EVPIM framework, this work defines EVPIM subcategories to estimate the expected value of eliminating slow, low, or delayed implementation. The work also shows how information on regional implementation patterns can be used to estimate the value of eliminating regional implementation variation. The application of this subcategorization is illustrated by a case study of the implementation of an antiplatelet therapy for the secondary prevention after myocardial infarction in Sweden. Incremental net benefit (INB) estimates are based on published cost-effectiveness assessments and a threshold of SEK 250,000 (22,300) pound per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). Results. In the case study, slow, low, and delayed implementation was estimated to represent 22%, 34%, and 44% of the total population EVPIM (2941 QALYs or SEK 735 million), respectively. The value of eliminating implementation variation across health care regions was estimated to 39% of total EVPIM (1138 QALYs). Conclusion. Subcategorizing EVPIM estimates the absolute and relative value of eliminating different parts of suboptimal implementation. By doing so, this approach could help decision makers to identify which parts of suboptimal implementation are contributing most to total EVPIM and provide the basis for assessing the cost and benefit of implementation activities that may address these in future implementation of health care interventions.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sage Publications, 2020
Keywords
health care decision making; implementation strategies; value of implementation
National Category
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-165244 (URN)10.1177/0272989X20907353 (DOI)000523170200001 ()32133911 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85081645022 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2020-04-20 Created: 2020-04-20 Last updated: 2021-12-28Bibliographically approved

Open Access in DiVA

fulltext(1403 kB)856 downloads
File information
File name FULLTEXT01.pdfFile size 1403 kBChecksum SHA-512
854595963899998d271097899c1f74029e34fd42a0cc94164ca52adc575c0bad744a322920bf9bb21d3364cba809d2f12c5bc357af9443e0168543da3c3f0e56
Type fulltextMimetype application/pdf
Order online >>

Other links

Publisher's full text

Search in DiVA

By author/editor
Johannesen, Kasper
By organisation
Division of Society and HealthFaculty of Medicine and Health Sciences
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy

Search outside of DiVA

GoogleGoogle Scholar
Total: 857 downloads
The number of downloads is the sum of all downloads of full texts. It may include eg previous versions that are now no longer available

doi
isbn
urn-nbn

Altmetric score

doi
isbn
urn-nbn
Total: 1614 hits
CiteExportLink to record
Permanent link

Direct link
Cite
Citation style
  • apa
  • ieee
  • modern-language-association-8th-edition
  • vancouver
  • Other style
More styles
Language
  • de-DE
  • en-GB
  • en-US
  • fi-FI
  • nn-NO
  • nn-NB
  • sv-SE
  • Other locale
More languages
Output format
  • html
  • text
  • asciidoc
  • rtf