Sågverken i Sverige letar kontinuerligt efter lösningar för att kunna effektivisera produktionen. I denna studie analyseras specifikt Derome Kinnareds sågens timmerplan. Genom en stopptidsanalys, undersökningar av nya tekniska lösningar, muntliga kommunikationer med personal samt arbetsledare och andra företag införskaffades underlag till analys. Åtgärder som kan utföras för att minimera produktionskostnaderna eller öka produktionen på timmerplan är att implementera ny teknik t.ex. fjärrmätning, digitalisera mätbesked med hjälp av SDC:s arkiv, omorganisera personalstyrkan samt införskaffa bemyndigad mätare. Förslagen indikerar att implementering av dem kan förbättra Kinnaredsågens ekonomi. Beroende på hur mycket företaget är villigt att investera kan det effektiviseras i olika grad. I samband med kommunikation med företagsrepresentanter kom man dock fram till att ny teknik kan vara bättre att implementera vid en nybyggnation.

Persistence of standing dead trees (snags) is an important determinant for their role for biodiversity and dead wood associated carbon fluxes. How fast snags fall varies widely among species and regions and is further influenced by a variety of stand- and tree-level factors. However, our understanding of this variation is fragmentary at best, partly due to lack of empirical data. Here, we took advantage of the accruing time series of snag observations in the Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish National Forest Inventories that have been followed in these programs since the mid-1990s. We first harmonized observations from slightly different inventory protocols and then, using this harmonized dataset of ca. 43,000 observations that had a consistent 5-year census interval, we modelled the probability of snags of the main boreal tree species Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies and Betula spp. falling, as a function of tree- and stand-level variables, using Bayesian logistic regression modelling. The models were moderately good at predicting snags remaining standing or falling, with a correct classification rate ranging from 68% to 75% among species. In general, snag persistence increased with tree size and climatic wetness, and decreased with temperature sum, advancing stage of decay, site productivity and disturbance intensity (mainly harvesting). Synthesis and applications: The effect of harvesting demonstrates that an efficient avenue to increase the amount of snags in managed forests is protecting them during silvicultural operations. In the warmer future, negative relationship between snag persistence and temperature suggests decreasing the time snags remain standing and hence decreasing habitat availability for associated species. As decomposition rates generally increase after fall, decreasing snag persistence also implies substantially faster release of carbon from dead wood. The effect of harvesting demonstrates that an efficient avenue to increase the amount of snags in managed forests is protecting them during silvicultural operations. In the warmer future, negative relationship between snag persistence and temperature suggests decreasing the time snags remain standing and hence decreasing habitat availability for associated species. As decomposition rates generally increase after fall, decreasing snag persistence also implies substantially faster release of carbon from dead wood.image

Forests are essential for life, providing various ecological, social, and economic benefits worldwide. However, one of the main challenges faced by the world is the forest damage caused by biotic and abiotic factors. In any case, the forest damages threaten the environment, biodiversity, and ecosystem. Climate change and anthropogenic activities, such as illegal logging and industrial waste, are among the principal elements contributing to forest damage. To achieve the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to forests and climate change, detecting and analyzing forest damages, and taking appropriate measures to prevent or reduce the damages are essential. To that end, we envision establishing a Smart Forest Observatories (SFOs) network, as shown below, which can be either a local area or a wide area network involving remote forests. The basic idea is to use Monitor, Analyze, Plan, Execute, and Knowledge (MAPE-K) architecture from autonomic computing and self-adaptive software systems domain to design and develop the SFOs network. The SFOs are planned to collect, analyze, and share the collected data and analysis results using state-of-the-art methods. The principal objective of the SFOs network is to provide accurate and real-time data to policymakers and forest managers, enabling them to develop effective policies and management strategies for global forest conservation that help to achieve SDGs related to forests and climate change.

Here, we hypothesize that the biological, structural and functional attributes of tropical forests respond to water-related climatic and soil nutrient-related factors.

Thus, we quantified 27 forest attributes and 20 environmental factors across 189 plots of Sri Lankan tropical forests. Our results suggest that environmental conditions were characterized by both water-related and temperature-related factors, and as such, both coarse-textured and compacted-structured soils determined soil conditions.

Forest conditions were characterized by high species-functional diversity, structural complexity and aboveground biomass-related functions. We found strong positive effects of water-related climatic factors followed by temperature-related climatic factors but negligible positive to negative effects of textured-related and nutrient-related soil factors on most of the biological, structural and functional attributes.

Overall the biodiversity and carbon stocks of Sri Lankan tropical forests are likely to increase with water-energy balance and improved soil conditions, and thus, studied forests could offset a substantial quantity of anthropogenic carbon emissions to achieve carbon neutrality which can have both regional and global significance if protected from anthropogenic disturbances. 

Forest plays a vital role in the global biogeochemical cycles through a high rate of carbon sequestration and harboring biodiversity. However, local species diversity is declining while also becoming increasingly homogenized across communities. Although effects of local biotic processes (e.g., species α-diversity and stand structural heterogeneity) and environmental factors on aboveground biomass (AGB) have been widely tested, there is a huge knowledge gap for the effect of regional biotic processes (i.e., taxonomic and functional β-diversity) in forests. Here, we hypothesized that regional and local environmental factors along with biotic processes jointly regulate AGB through species shifts in tropical forests.

Using piecewise structural equation modeling (pSEM), we linked climatic water availability, soil fertility, stand structural heterogeneity (either tree DBH inequality, height inequality, or stand density), species α-diversity, taxonomic or functional β-diversity (and its two components; β-turnover and β-richness), and AGB across 189 inventory plots in tropical forests of Sri Lanka. Soil fertility and climatic water availability shaped local and regional biotic processes. Stand structural heterogeneity promoted species α-diversity but declined β-diversity (but increased β-taxonomic turnover). Species α-diversity and stand structural heterogeneity promoted AGB whereas taxonomic and functional β-diversity declined (but β-taxonomic turnover increased) AGB.

The relationships of AGB with species α-diversity and β-diversity varied from significant to nonsignificant positive depending on the specific combinations of stand structural heterogeneity metrics used. This study shows that local biotic processes could increase AGB due to the local and regional niche complementarity effect whereas the regional biotic processes could restrict AGB due to the regional selection or functional redundancy effect under favorable environmental conditions. We argue that biotic homogenization, as well as drought conditions, may have strong divergent impacts on forest functions and that the impacts of tree diversity loss may greatly reduce carbon sequestration.

The aim of the study was to investigate the forest in the national park on the Blue Maiden Island and compare with mainland forest data. The study was made in a quantitative way. The results from the field measurement were related to data from the Swedish National Forest Inventory.

Oak, Scots pine and Lime were the most common tree species and constituted 47, 18 and 16 % of basal area, respectively, on the island.

The mean heigt was 7 m and the volume of living trees was on average 72 m³/ha and dead wood 30 m³/ha. The average age at breast height was 137 years and the oldest tree was an oak with the age of 335 years at breast height. The amount of dead wood constituted 40 % of the total volume. Disturbances have had influence on the forest on the Island. To what extent cannot be determined without further investigations.

Skogsbränderna har en stor betydelse för den biologiska mångfalden. Det brandpåverkade landskapet och dess dynamik skapar viktiga substrat och livsmiljöer för många pyrofila arter. På grund av att skogsbränderna har minskat i antal sedan 1800-talet, har kontrollerade naturvårdsbränningar utförts som ett komplement för dessa sedan 1980-talet. De kontrollerade naturvårdsbränningarna skapar de miljöer och substrat som många arter är beroende av. Eftersom tidigare mänsklig verksamhet satt prägel på skogarna återfinns idag ett stort antal fornlämningar och övriga kulturhistoriska lämningar i skogsmarkerna. Det är en utmaning att utföra naturvårdsbränningarna så att dessa lämningar inte skadas. Det råder också en brist på tydliga riktlinjer om hur Länsstyrelserna ska förhålla sig till naturvårdsbränningar i områden med lämningar. Denna studies syfte var att undersöka vilken inställning Länsstyrelserna har till naturvårdsbränningar i områden med fornlämningar eller övriga kulturhistoriska lämningar.

Nyckelord: Naturvårdsbränningar, fornlämningar, övriga kulturhistoriska lämningar, Länsstyrelsen

Keyword: Prescribed burnings, ancient remains, other cultural-historical remains, County Administrative Boards

Aim: We provide the first European-scale geospatial training set relating the charcoal signal in surface lake sediments to fire parameters (number, intensity and area) recorded by satellite moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensors. Our calibration is intended for quantitative reconstructions of key fire-regime parameters by using sediment sequences of microscopic (MIC from pollen slides, particles 10-500 mu m) and macroscopic charcoal (MAC from sieves, particles > 100 mu m). Location: North-south and east-west transects across Europe, covering the mediterranean, temperate, alpine, boreal and steppe biomes. Time period: Lake sediments and MODIS active fire and burned area products were collected for the years 2012-2015. Methods: Cylinder sediment traps were installed in lakes to annually collect charcoal particles in sediments. We quantitatively assessed the relationships between MIC and MAC influx (particles/cm(2)/year) and the MODIS-derived products to identify source areas of charcoal and the extent to which lake-sediment charcoal is linked to fire parameters across the continent. Results: Source area of sedimentary charcoal was estimated to a 40-km radius around sites for both MIC and MAC particles. Fires occurred in grasslands and in forests, with grass morphotypes of MAC accurately reflecting the burned fuel-type. Despite the lack of local fires around the sites, MAC influx levels reached those reported for local fires. Both MIC and MAC showed strong and highly significant relationships with the MODIS-derived fire parameters, as well as with climatic variation along a latitudinal temperature gradient. Main conclusions: MIC and MAC are suited to quantitatively reconstructing fire number and fire intensity on a regional scale. However, burned area may only be estimated using MAC. Local fires may be identified by using several lines of evidence, e.g. analysis of large particles (> 600 mu m), magnetic susceptibility and sedimentological data. Our results offer new insights and applications to quantitatively reconstruct fires and to interpret available sedimentary charcoal records.

Myrtle rust is a serious fungal disease caused by Austropuccinia psidii affecting a number of Myrtaceae species in New Zealand and elsewhere. Control with fungicides or biologicals provides a mechanism to reduce the build-up of inoculum in the short-term while other strategies are being developed or deployed for long-term management. This study evaluated the efficacy of fungicides for control of myrtle rust under controlled conditions and identified adjuvants that would promote spreading of fungicidal active ingredients across the leaf surface. The spread of fungicide on detached M. excelsa leaves was assessed by applying three different adjuvants in combination with seven fungicides. Subsequently, M. excelsa plants were treated with three fungicides/mixes, (azoxystrobin + epoxiconazole, triademinol or a natural tea-extract) at a single rate followed by inoculation with A. psidii urediniospores on day 0, 7, 14 or 21 days after spraying. The response to infection in M. excelsa plants based on different inoculation timings at days 0, 7 and 21 significantly differed among fungicide treatments. The fungicide azoxystrobin + epoxiconazole was the most effective with infections significantly lower on the adaxial leaf surface than abaxial, despite good surface coverage of fungicide being achieved on both leaf surfaces. There were significant differences among fungicides based on the proportion of infected leaves on M. excelsa plants. Day 21 post-spray inoculation indicated a significant interaction between inoculation time and fungicide on leaf disease ratings. However, this was not the case at either 28 or 35 days post-inoculation. This research contributes to fungicide options for myrtle rust control in New Zealand.

Ecological significance of trees growing in urban and peri-urban settings is likely to increase in future land-use regimes, calling for better understanding of their role as potential reservoirs or stepping stones for associated biodiversity. We studied the diversity of fungal endophytes in woody tissues of asymptomatic even aged pedunculate oak trees, growing as amenity trees in a peri-urban setting. The trees were classified into three groups according to their phenotypic vitality (high, medium, and low). Endophytes were cultured on potato dextrose media from surface sterilized twigs and DNA sequencing was performed to reveal the taxonomic identity of the morphotypes. In xylem tissues, the frequency and diversity of endophytes was highest in oak trees showing reduced vitality. This difference was not found for bark samples, in which the endophyte infections were more frequent and communities more diverse than in xylem. In general, most taxa were shared across the samples with few morphotypes being recovered in unique samples. Leaf phenolic profiles were found to accurately classify the trees according to their phenotypic vitality. Our results confirm that xylem is more selective substrate for endophytes than bark and that endophyte assemblages in xylem are correlated to the degree of host vitality. Thus, high vitality of trees may be associated with reduced habitat quality to wood-associated endophytes.

For the last two decades, large-scale population decline of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) has occurred in Europe because of the introduction of the alien fungal pathogen, Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, from East Asia. Since European ash is a keystone species having critical importance for biodiversity, and only a small percentage of the ash population appears to show some tolerance against the pathogen, the loss of ash trees means that other associated organisms, especially those with high or obligate associations to ash, are at risk of further species declines. In this study, we used high throughput DNA sequencing and multivariate analysis to characterize: (i) the mycobiome in aerial tissues (i.e., leaf, bark, and xylem) of ash trees showing different phenotypic response to ash dieback, (ii) the temporal variation in fungal communities across the growing season, and (iii) the similarity in fungal community structure between ash and other common trees species that may serve as an ecological niche substitute for ash microfungi. Results showed that fungal communities differed among the three tissue types, susceptibility classes, in time and between sites. Trophic analysis of functional groups using the FUNGuild tool indicated a higher presence of pathotrophic fungi in leaves than in bark and xylem. The share of pathotrophic fungi increased along a gradient of low to high disease susceptibility in both bark and xylem tissue, while the proportion of symbiotrophic fungi correspondingly decreased in both tissue types. Neighboring, alternative host trees did not share all the fungal species found in ash, however, most microfungi uniquely associated to ash in this study are generalists and not strictly host specific. The progressive disappearance of ash trees on the landscape imposes a high risk for extinction of Red-listed macrofungal species, and breeding for resistance against ash dieback should help sustain important biodiversity associated to ash. Microfungal diversity though may be less prone to such demise since most ash-associated endophytes appear to occur on a broad range of host species. 

For the last two decades, large-scale population decline of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) has occurred in Europe because of the introduction of the alien fungal pathogen, Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, from East Asia. Since European ash is a keystone species having critical importance for biodiversity, and only a small percentage of the ash population appears to show some tolerance against the pathogen, the loss of ash trees means that other associated organisms, especially those with high or obligate associations to ash, are at risk of further species declines. In this study, we used high throughput DNA sequencing and multivariate analysis to characterize: (i) the mycobiome in aerial tissues (i.e., leaf, bark, and xylem) of ash trees showing different phenotypic response to ash dieback, (ii) the temporal variation in fungal communities across the growing season, and (iii) the similarity in fungal community structure between ash and other common trees species that may serve as an ecological niche substitute for ash microfungi. Results showed that fungal communities differed among the three tissue types, susceptibility classes, in time and between sites. Trophic analysis of functional groups using the FUNGuild tool indicated a higher presence of pathotrophic fungi in leaves than in bark and xylem. The share of pathotrophic fungi increased along a gradient of low to high disease susceptibility in both bark and xylem tissue, while the proportion of symbiotrophic fungi correspondingly decreased in both tissue types. Neighboring, alternative host trees did not share all the fungal species found in ash, however, most microfungi uniquely associated to ash in this study are generalists and not strictly host specific. The progressive disappearance of ash trees on the landscape imposes a high risk for extinction of Red-listed macrofungal species, and breeding for resistance against ash dieback should help sustain important biodiversity associated to ash. Microfungal diversity though may be less prone to such demise since most ash-associated endophytes appear to occur on a broad range of host species.

Syftet med rapporten var att undersöka hur Mellanskog arbetar med kundnöjdhet och hur de skogsägare som anlitar dem för avverkningsuppdrag upplever kundnöjdheten. Resultatet från enkätundersökningen visade att de flesta som anlitat Mellanskog för ett avverkningsuppdrag visade en hög grad av kundnöjdhet. Mellanskog arbetade inte själv aktivt med analyser av kundnöjdhet eller hade ett uttalat arbetssätt kring kundnöjdhet.

Established frameworks such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) and the Total Economic Value (TEV) recognize how forest ecosystems have extrinsic and intrinsic value to society. We critically discuss the appropriateness of attempting to adapt a service-dominant logic (S-D logic) framework to meet the unique characteristics of forest ecosystems by incorporating elements from the MEA and TEV. This chapter enriches the current discussion related to S-D logic and forests by including inherent values in-neglect, no-use and no-trade. These categories highlight how the value of forests can be created or destroyed when forest owners neglect values to their wellbeing or when absence of transactions fail to clearly define beneficiaries. Within an overview of Services in Family Forestry we argue and illustrate how the process of participation in public policy programs can influence individual and collective value co-creation and co-destruction. Moreover, institutions can play a critical role in the value creation process as brokers between beneficiaries.

Across the boreal biome, clear-cutting of old, previously non clear-cut forests with high naturalness followed by tree planting or seeding is a major land use change. However, how much previously uncut forest has been converted to plantations remains unquantified. We combine Swedish national databases on clear-cuts and forest inventories to show that at least 19% of all clear-cuts since 2003 have occurred in old forests that were most likely not previously cut and planted or seeded. Old forests have been cut and lost at a steady rate of ∼1.4% per year for the same period, and at this rate they will disappear by the 2070s. There is further evidence that this type of unreported forest conversion is occurring across much of the world's boreal forest.

Recent efforts to sequence the genomes and transcriptomes of several gymnosperm species have revealed an increased complexity in certain gene families in gymnosperms as compared to angiosperms. One example of this is the gymnosperm sister Glade to angiosperm TM3-like MADS-box genes, which at least in the conifer lineage has expanded in number of genes. We have previously identified a member of this subclade, the conifer gene DEFICIENS AGAMOUS LIKE 19 (DAL19), as being specifically upregulated in cone-setting shoots. Here, we show through Sanger sequencing of mRNA-derived cDNA and mapping to assembled conifer genomic sequences that DAL19 produces six mature mRNA splice variants in Picea abies. These splice variants use alternate first and last exons, while their four central exons constitute a core region present in all six transcripts. Thus, they are likely to be transcript isoforms. Quantitative Real-Time PCR revealed that two mutually exclusive first DAL19 exons are differentially expressed across meristems that will form either male or female cones, or vegetative shoots. Furthermore, mRNA in situ hybridization revealed that two mutually exclusive last DAL19 exons were expressed in a cell-specific pattern within bud meristems. Based on these findings in DAL19, we developed a sensitive approach to transcript isoform assembly from short-read sequencing of mRNA. We applied this method to 42 putative MADS-box core regions in P abies, from which we assembled 1084 putative transcripts. We manually curated these transcripts to arrive at 933 assembled transcript isoforms of 38 putative MADS-box genes. 152 of these isoforms, which we assign to 28 putative MADS-box genes, were differentially expressed across eight female, male, and vegetative buds. We further provide evidence of the expression of 16 out of the 38 putative MADS-box genes by mapping PacBio Iso-Seq circular consensus reads derived from pooled sample sequencing to assembled transcripts. In summary, our analyses reveal the use of mutually exclusive exons of MADS-box gene isoforms during early bud development in P. abies, and we find that the large number of identified MADS-box transcripts in P. abies results not only from expansion of the gene family through gene duplication events but also from the generation of numerous splice variants.

The contribution of forest harvesting to base cation losses and soil acidification has increased in recent years in Sweden, as the demand for bioenergy has increased and the sulphur deposition has decreased. Thus, new policy tools are required to evaluate the progress of the recovery from acidification, and as a basis for forest management recommendations. In this study we introduce and test a concept, Critical biomass harvesting. The concept builds on the concept Critical loads, which has been used world-wide for several decades as a bridge between science and policies related to transboundary air pollution and acidification. The basis for the concept is an acidity mass balance, with sources and sinks of acidity. A critical limit defines the highest acceptable acidification status of the water leaving the root zone. Based on the critical limit, the highest allowed biomass harvesting can be calculated, keeping the other parameters constant. In this study the critical limit was set to ANC (Acid Neutralizing Capacity) = 0. Nitrogen was assumed to be affecting acidity only if it leaches from the root zone. The critical biomass harvesting was calculated for almost 12000 National Forest Inventory sites with spruce and pine forest, using the best available data on deposition, weathering and nitrogen leaching. The exceedance of critical biomass harvesting was calculated as the difference between the estimated harvest losses and the critical biomass harvesting. The results were presented as median values in merged catchments in a catchment database, with totally 2079 merged catchments in Sweden. According to the calculations, critical biomass harvesting was exceeded in the southern half of Sweden already at stem harvesting in spruce forests. Whole-tree harvesting expanded the exceedance area, and increased the exceedance levels in southern Sweden. The exceedance in pine forest was lower and affected smaller areas. It was concluded that the concept of critical biomass harvesting can be successfully applied on the same database that has been used for critical load calculations in Sweden, using basically the same approach as has been extensively applied, evaluated and discussed in a critical load context. The results from the calculations in Sweden indicate that whole-tree harvesting, without wood ash recycling, can be expected to further slow down recovery, especially in the most acidified parts of the country, in the southwest.

Nitrogen (N) is often considered to be the major factor limiting tree growth in northern forest ecosystems. An increased N availability, however, increases the demand for other nutrients such as base cations and phosphorous (P) which in turn may change which nutrient is the limiting factor. If P or base cations become limiting, N will start to leach which means a risk of increased eutrophication of surface waters. As many studies focus on base cations, this study instead aims at estimating P budgets on a regional scale for different harvesting scenarios relevant for Swedish conditions.

P budget calculations were carried out for 14,550 coniferous sites from the Swedish National Forest Inventory, as weathering+deposition–harvesting–leaching. Three scenarios with different harvest intensities were used: 1) no harvesting, 2) stem harvesting and 3) whole-tree harvesting. The input data were derived from measurements and model results.

The P budget estimates indicate that harvesting, especially whole-tree harvesting, result in net losses of P in large parts of Sweden. The highest losses were found in southern Sweden due to high growth rate in this area. In the whole-tree harvesting scenario the losses exceeded 1 kg ha− 1 y− 1 on many sites. N budget calculations on the same sites indicate that N generally accumulates in the whole country and especially in the southern parts. Consequently, the N and P budget calculations indicate that the forests in southern Sweden are in a transition phase from N-to P-limitation to growth. This transition will proceed as long as the accumulation of N continues. These results are important in a sustainable forestry context, as a basis for assessing the risk of future N leaching, and in designing recommendations for abatement strategies of N deposition and for application of wood ash recycling and N fertilization.

This paper presents the first results of the ongoing development of new forest mapping methods for the Swedish national forest mapping case using Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data, utilizing the recent findings in machine learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques. We used Random Forest (RF) and eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) as ML models. In addition, Neural networks (NN) based approaches were utilized in this study. ALS derived features were used to estimate the stem volume (V), above-ground biomass (AGB), basal area (B), tree height (H), stem diameter (D), and forest stand age (A). XGBoost ML algorithm outperformed RF 1 % to 3 % in the R² metric. NN model performed similar to ML model, however it is superior in the estimation of V, AGB, and B parameters.

We developed site specific component (stem, branch, and foliage) biomass functions for two sites in Sweden (64° and 57° North latitude) where four treatments (control, irrigated, fertilized, irrigated plus fertilized) were applied in the existing Norway spruce stands (Picea abies L. Karst.) for 17 years. We tested for site effects in the component biomass equations and compared site specific biomass estimates to those generated using published functions ( Lehtonen et al., 2004 and Wirth et al., 2004). Site effects were significant for all components and indicated it would be unlikely to generate equations that well estimate biomass across the Norway spruce range as implicitly indicated in our efforts to generate species biomass expansion factors. We rejected our hypothesis that the published functions would well estimate component biomass for control plots. The published functions did not compare well with site specific component biomass estimates for the other treatments; both published functions well estimated stem mass up to stem mass of 25 Mg ha⁻¹, beyond which stem mass was overestimated, and both functions over and under estimated foliage and branch mass. Nor did the published functions compare well with each other, with stem, foliage and branch mass estimate differences of 12, 55, −8% and 11, 77, and 59% for the southern and northern sites, respectively, when averaged over all treatments and years. Adding limiting resources through fertilization increased stem, foliage and branch mass 57, 11, 18% and 120, 37, and 69% at the southern and northern sites, respectively, which would increase carbon sequestration and available stemwood and bioenergy materials. We recommend that more effort is spent in process-based modeling to better predict mass at a given site and ultimately provide better estimates of carbon sequestration and bioenergy material production changes.

Endophytic fungi are known to be abundant colonizers of the internal tissues of forest trees, but their ecological functions are still largely unknown. Recent studies indicate that endophytes may associate with tree's resistance and tolerance properties, and they are thus potential bio-agents that could be utilized in sustainable forest protection and management. To gain a better understanding of the endophytes' potential role in shaping forest health we need more evidence in the form of ecological studies of endophyte communities, in various tissues, across space, and time. The recent advances in molecular methods have given us new and effective tools to obtain such data. Studies of endophyte functions are further facilitated with the development of new high through-put screening methods for substrate use and competitive ability. Fungi are known as chemical factories of natural compounds with biological properties. Beside their potential as antagonists against pests and diseases, the tree-associated endophytic fungi therefore also appear as an emerging source of novel biomolecules for industrial or clinical applications outside forestry. This chapter presents some of the current methodological approaches that are likely to be valuable in studies on endophyte diversity in forest trees, and discusses the goals and impacts of the studies that aim at disentangling the beneficial potential of fungal endophytes in trees. A new concept, bioactive symbiosis, is suggested as a general framework for these studies.

Mixed forests are suggested as a strategic adaptation of forest management to climate change. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) are tree species of high economic and ecological value for European forestry. Both species coexist naturally in a large part of their distributions but there is a lack of knowledge on the ecological functioning of mixtures of these species and how to manage such stands. This paper analyses these species' intra- and inter-specific competition, including size-symmetric vs. size-asymmetric competition, and explore the effect of weather conditions on tree growth and competition. We studied basal area growth at tree level for Scots pine and Norway spruce in mixed versus pure stands in 22 triplets of fully-stocked plots along a broad range of ecological conditions across Europe. Stand inventory and increment cores provided insights into how species mixing modifies tree growth compared with neighbouring pure stands. Five different competition indices, weather variables and their interactions were included and checked in basal area growth models using a linear mixed model approach. Interspecific size-asymmetric competition strongly influenced growth for both tree species, and was modulated by weather conditions. However, species height stratification in mixed stands resulted in a greater tree basal area growth of Scots pine (10.5 em(2) year(-1)) than in pure stands (9.3 em(2) year(-1)), as this species occupies the upper canopy layer. Scots pine growth depended on temperature and drought, whereas Norway spruce growth was influenced only by drought. Interspecific site-asymmetric competition increased in cold winters for Scots pine, and decreased after a drought year for Norway spruce. Although mixtures of these species may reduce tree size for Norway spruce, our results suggest that this could be offset by faster growth in Scots pine. How inter-specific competition and weather conditions alter tree growth may have strong implications for the management of Scots pine-Norway spruce mixtures along the rotation period into the ongoing climate change scenario.

1. Climate change is increasing the severity and frequency of droughts around the globe, leading to tree mortality that reduces production and provision of other ecosystem services. Recent studies show that growth of mixed stands may be more resilient to drought than pure stands. The two most economically important and widely distributed tree species in Europe are Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), but little is known about their susceptibility to drought when coexist.
2. This paper analyses the resilience (resistance, recovery rate and recovery time) at individual-tree level using a network of tree-ring collections from 22 sites along a climatic gradient from central Europe to Scandinavia. We aimed to identify differences in growth following drought between the two species and between mixed and pure stands, and how environmental variables (climate, topography and site location) and tree characteristics influence them.
3. We found that both the timing and duration of drought drive the different responses between species and compositions. Norway spruce showed higher vulnerability to summer drought, with both lower resistance and a longer recovery time than Scots pine. Mixtures provided higher drought resistance for both species compared to pure stands, but the benefit decreases with the duration of the drought. Especially climate sensitive and old trees in climatically marginal sites were more affected by drought stress.
4. Synthesis. Promoting Scots pine and mixed forests is a promising strategy for adapting European forests to climate change. However, if future droughts become longer, the advantage of mixed stands could disappear which would be especially negative for Norway spruce.

Tack vare vissa önskade egenskaper gjordes en storsatsning på contortatall (Pinus contorta) i Sverige på 70-talet. Idag finns cirka 600 000 ha i Sverige som det gjorts provsågningar på och är nu dags att hitta användningsområden till. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka skillnaden i utbyte mellan contortatall och gran (Picea abies) efter hyvling. Målet var att undersöka om sidobrädor av contortatall kan vara ett substitut till sidobrädor av gran vid hyvling ämnat för den amerikanska marknaden.Efter skanning av brädor samt manuell visuell sortering visade det sig att 92 % av granbrädorna var utan defekt medan 24 % av contortatallen var det. 34 % av contortatallen nedklassades för hål och 3 % av granen. Slutsatsen av studien visar att mängden och storleken på kvistarna är ett problem för contortatallvirket. För att få ett högkvalitativt virke behövs en djupare översyn av tillvägagångssättet för torkning och trädens tillväxtförhållanden.

Pistachio is an important economic crop in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. A major problem leading to a reduction in crop quality and reduced marketability is extreme air temperature in summer, which causes sunburn of pistachio leaves and fruit. A solution proposed to deal with the negative effects of high temperatures and increase water consumption efficiency in pistachio orchards is use of light-reflecting compounds. This study investigated the effect of foliar application of gypsum, sulfur, and NAX-95 (calcium-based suspension coating) to trees in a pistachio orchard (150 ha) in central Iran. The effect of these foliar products is assessed at plot scale, using control plots sprayed with calcium sulfate, based on temperature and evapotranspiration changes analyzed through remote sensing. Landsat 8 sensor images and RGB images collected by UAVs (spatial resolution of 30 m and 20 cm, respectively), on the same dates, before and after foliar spray application, were merged using the PCA method and bilinear interpolation re-sampling. Land surface temperature (LST) was then estimated using the split-window algorithm, and daily evapotranspiration using the surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) algorithm. A land use map was prepared and used to isolate pistachio trees in the field and assess weed cover, whose effect was not accounted. The results showed that temperature remained constant in the control plot between the spraying dates, indicating no environmental changes. In the main plots, gypsum had the greatest effect in reducing the temperature of pistachio trees. The plots with foliar spraying with gypsum displayed a mean tree temperature (47-48 degrees C) decrease of 3.3 degrees C in comparison with the control plots (>49 degrees C), leading to an average decline in evapotranspiration of 0.18 mm/day. NAX-95 and sulfur reduced tree temperature by on average 1.3 degrees C and 0.6 degrees C, respectively. Thus, gypsum is the most suitable foliar-spraying compound to lower the temperature of pistachio trees, reduce the water requirement, and increase crop productivity.

Betesskador på plantor och ungskogar av tall (Pinus sylvestris L.) utgör idag ett stort problem för Sveriges privata enskilda skogsägare. En enskild skogsägare kan drabbas hårt ekonomiskt om en planterad yta utsätts för omfattande bete. Såväl förädlade plantor som naturliga föryngringar utgör ett attraktivt foder för viltet och då särskilt bland hjortdjuren. Skogsstyrelsen skattade år 2019 att betesskadorna gav en tillväxtförlust på 6,4 miljoner m3sk, som värderades till 7,2 miljarder kronor.

Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka och beskriva privata skogsägares attityd till älgstammens storlek baserat på val av föryngringsmetod. Hypotesen var att privata skogsägare som väljer naturlig föryngring är mer positiv till en större älgstam än de skogsägare som väljer plantering.

Empirin till studien har samlats in via en enkät där respondenterna består av den ekonomiska skogsägarföreningen Mellanskogs medlemmar.

Slutsatsen i studien är att det inte finns något signifikant samband mellan hur den privata skogsägaren ser på älgstammens storlek och val av föryngringsmetod för tall. Trots detta pekar resultaten mot en positiv syn på älgen som djur i förhållande till naturlig föryngring av tall.

Planning for and managing disturbances in protected areas requires governance arrangements that are both adaptive to changing conditions and effective in dealing with multiple challenges. This paper presents a framework composed of principles and criteria of good and adaptive governance that pays attention to inclusiveness, responsibility, fairness, strategic vision, performance orientation, and adaptiveness. The framework was empirically tested on fire management planning in Prince Albert National Park, Saskatchewan, Canada, involving interactions between Parks Canada and Saskatchewan Environment. Our results suggest that while the principle of performance orientation was upheld, principles such as inclusiveness and adaptiveness were only partially supported. Additional testing beyond fire management planning can help determine the utility of the framework for other environmental management situations.

In Sweden the quality of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) saw timber has decreased. It is especially due to increased labour cost that has led to rational and effective forest management.

This study investigated the quality of Scots pine and the potential to produce high quality stems in 9 stands in Bergslagen, Sweden. Two different stand types were investigated: Pruned stands and conventional managed stands. The outcome was a high percentage of valuable stems in the pruned stands (72-94 %), and 46-56 % in the conventional managed stands. It is possible to produce high quality timber of Scots pine with active management, for example by pruning and careful selection of stems in thinnings.

In the continual desire to reduce the environmental footprints of human activities, research efforts to provide cleaner energy is increasingly becoming vital. The effect of climate change on present and future existence, sustainable processes, and utilizations of renewable resources have been active topics within international discourse. In order to reduce the greenhouse gases emissions from traditional materials and processes, there has been a shift to more environmental friendly alternatives. The conversion of biomass to bioenergy, including biofuels has been considered to contribute to the future of climate change mitigation, although there are concerns about carbon balance from forest utilization. Bioenergy accounts for more than one-third of all energy used in Sweden and biomass has provided about 60% of the fuel for district heating. Apart from heat and electricity supply, the transport sector, with about 30% of global energy use, has a significant role in a sustainable bioenergy system. This review presents the state of the art in the Swedish bioenergy sector based on literature and Swedish Energy Agency’s current statistics. The review also discusses the overall bioenergy production and utilization in different sectors in Sweden. The current potential, challenges, and environmental considerations of bioenergy production are also discussed

Plant diversity is an important driver of diversity at other trophic levels, suggesting that cascading extinctions could reduce overall biodiversity. Most evidence for positive effects of plant diversity comes from grasslands. Despite the fact that forests are hotspots of biodiversity, the importance of tree diversity, in particular its relative importance compared to other management related factors, in affecting forest-associated taxa is not well known. To address this, we used data from 183 plots, located in different forest types, from Mediterranean to Boreal, and established along a climatic gradient across six European countries (FunDivEUROPE project). We tested the influence of tree diversity, tree functional composition (i.e. functional trait values), forest structure, climate and soil on the diversity and abundance/activity of nine taxa (bats, birds, spiders, microorganisms, earthworms, ungulates, foliar fungal pathogens, defoliating insects and understorey plants) and on their overall diversity and abundance/activity (multidiversity, multiabundance/activity). Tree diversity was a key driver of taxon-level and overall forest-associated biodiversity, along with tree functional composition, forest structure, climate and soil. Both tree species richness and functional diversity (variation in functional trait values) were important. The effects of tree diversity on the abundance/activity of forest-associated taxa were less consistent. Nonetheless, spiders, ungulates and foliar fungal pathogens were all more abundant/active in diverse forests. Tree functional composition and structure were also important drivers of abundance/activity: conifer stands had lower overall multidiversity (although the effect was driven by defoliating insects), while stands with potentially tall trees had lower overall multiabundance/activity. We found more synergies than tradeoffs between diversity and abundance/activity of different taxa, suggesting that forest management can promote high diversity across taxa. Our results clearly show the high value of mixed forest stands for multiple forest-associated taxa and indicate that multiple dimensions of tree diversity (taxonomic and functional) are important.

Sett över hela landet växer ädellövskog endast på en procent av den produktiva skogsmarken. I det studerade området Dalsland utgörs virkesförrådet uppskattningsvis av tre procent ädla lövträd. Dess förekomst är därför att betrakta som relativt sällsynt. Denna studie hade för avsikt att intervjua markägare som har valt att nyetablera med ädellövskog och genom det förstå vad det är som bidragit till att de föryngrat med dessa trädslag.

Undersökningen utfördes genom att sex individer som nyetablerat med ädellövskog intervjuades. Resultatet sammanställdes därefter genom att se på gruppen som en helhet och lyfta fram samtliga påverkande faktorer. Utifrån resultatet kunde 13 faktorer identifieras som bidragande och en förståelse kring dem redogöras för. 

Det kan konstateras att ett flertal faktorer påverkat markägarna i valet att plantera ädellövskog.

Skattning av skogliga variabler är inte längre begränsade till datainsamling genom manuell fältmätning. Numera kan skattningar göras genom insamling av data från såväl laserskanning (Airborne Laser Scanning, ALS) som mobilapplikationen Katam Forest (KF) som företaget Katam utvecklat. Dessutom kan varje enskilt träd skattas genom att kombinera Katam Treemap (KT), som använder sig av fotogrammetri för att mäta trädhöjd och identifiera träd, med KF (KF+KT) . I denna studie jämfördes skattningar av grundytevägd medeldiameter (DGV) och grundyta (GY) utförda med manuell fältmätning, ALS, KF samt KF+KT, i tre olika grandominerande bestånd. KF+KT beräknades felaktigt varför inga slutsatser kan dras om metoden. KF visade ett lägre relativt RMSE än ALS, 7,8 % jämfört med 9,6 % vid skattning av DGV. För GY var relativ RMSE 22,5 % vid KF, och 23 % vid ALS. KF bedöms med fördel kunna användas likvärdigt med manuell fältmätning.

The communicative interaction between contractor and subcontractor of residue forwarder plays a crucial role in the efficiency of handling forest residue. Since that type of work is at the end of the harvesting process, it may be that it is not as prioritized as the previous harvesting measures. The study investigates the communicative interaction between subcontractor that drives a residue forwarder and contractor and its connection to work-related production stops. The study was accomplished by a web-based survey and quantitative interviews conducted with eight selectively selected residue forwarder drivers in southern Sweden. The result of the survey showed that the average of all total production stops was one hour and 52 minutes under an average stop period of 25 working days. Most of the stops were caused by other work-related problems. Communication problems accounted for 20% of the number of production stops and the average stop duration was one hour and five minutes. The time when a residue forwarder was inactive seventeen minutes per day. In conclusion, the communicative problems are not the main reason to inactivity for residue forwarders. However, communication plays an important role in productive harvesting and represent the biggest possibility for improvement in the communication between residue forwarder drivers and contractor, which could lead to fewer production stops.  

Residue Forwarders, Communication Problems, Production Stop and Forest residue. 

Gross felling has accelerated in recent decades, and as a consequence, the requirements for forestry have increased. Today a comprehensive environmental consideration needs to be taken. This also imposes higher demands on the contractors. In order for contractors to be able to live up to the requirements, it is important that the customer of the service hands over a work instruction in connection to the removal of region assignments. This work instruction and work order is created in the form of a region directive. A qualitative region directive is considered important for Fiskarhedens Trävaru AB and for their contractors. A case study has been conducted to evaluate and describe the company's current region directive. The results show that the current region directive is sometimes inadequate due to that they are poorly completed. Important content is therefore not communicated as needed. A proposal of a new improved region directive, where the content is intended to be filled in better, has therefore been developed. With the help of this region directive, Fiskarheden can maintain sustainable forestry.

The two latest IPCC assessment reports have concluded that knowledge is not sufficient for inducing action on climate change. This study problematizes the issue of going beyond business-as-usual through a study of the forestry sector in Sweden, which is a large economic sector and could be expected to be an early adapter, given that newly planted forest may stand some 70-90 years into the future. Therefore resources, economic motivation in the longer term and environmental foundations for early adaptation action could be expected to exist. This study draws upon the Foucauldian conceptualization of governmentality to explain the particular institutional logics that nevertheless lead to business-as-usual arguments dominating discussion on adaptation in the case of Swedish forestry. The study emphasizes that adaptation must be seen as steered and limited by existing institutional, social system logics, rather than by externally defined "rational" motivations. Efforts on adaptation to climate change must thus be considered in relation to, and seek to change, existing institutionally based motivational and incentive structures, and must thus be conceived through social rather than environmental logics. In fact, social logics may even define the types of actions that may be regarded as adaptations.

Sweden is one of the most forested countries in Europe, and it has one of the highest shares of productive forest. Production in forestry is largely reliant on the private non-industrial forest owners, who own half of the forest land. As in many countries, however, forest ownership is changing towards a higher extent of urban, female or non-forestry-background owners. This poses a challenge for the forestry services sector, mainly forest owners' associations and companies, but also broadly the sector at large. By exploring the sales and marketing processes, this paper analyses the service logics and strategies of Swedish forestry under changing forest ownership, drawing on an interview study covering all the large actors in the Swedish forestry sector. The study illustrates an increased focus of forestry organizations on services from a strategic and managerial perspective, in customer-oriented relationship development and in value creation and sales processes, specifically in order to manage "new" forest owners and the demand of forest industries. The results highlight the domination of service logics associated with timber production and the challenges for the service market and the provision of diversified services to forest owners.

With a changing climate, storm and wind throw is becoming an increasing risk to forest. However, Swedish forest management practices have so far involved relatively little consideration of adaptation to climate change. This study examined resistance and alternatives to business as usual forest management, drawing upon material obtained in interviews with individual forest owners who spontaneously identified and discussed storm and wind throw as a risk to their forest. They thereby expressed a logic differing from that of the forest industry in Sweden, which has largely normalised storm risk rather than considering it in climate change adaptation work. The present analysis illustrates the broad and largely concerned position of individual forest owners, in contrast with a more established industry position on storm as an accepted and existing risk. Overall, the study highlights the diversity, agency and power relations within Swedish forestry and the forested landscape - aspects that are vital to better understanding processes relevant to forest and climate change adaptation.

Adaptation to climate change has often been discussed from the perspectives of social vulnerability and community vulnerability, recognising that characteristics at local level will influence the particular adaptations undertaken. However, the extent to which national-level systemic factors influence and shape measures defined as adaptations has seldom been recognised. Focusing on adaptation to climate change in forestry, this study uses the example of two countries in the northern hemisphere with different forest ownership structures, forestry industry and traditions: Sweden, with strong private, non-industrial ownership, dominant forest industry and long forestry traditions; and Scotland, with forest ownership dominated by large estates and investment forestry based on plantations of exotic conifer species. The study shows how adaptation to climate change is structurally embedded and conditioned, which has resulted in specific challenges and constraints for different groups of forest owners within these two different contexts. This produces a specific set of political spaces and policy tools by rendering climate change in relation to forestry manageable, negotiable and practical/logical in specific ways. It is recommended that the focus of future work on climate-related issues and development of adaptation measures and policy should not be primarily on climate-related factors, but on institutional analysis of structural factors and logics in target sectors, in order to critically explore concepts of agency and power within these processes.

Drawing upon interviews with representatives of all the major forestry organisations in Sweden, this paper explores how, in their sales and services, they work to overcome the growing distance between forest owners and forests. The results indicate that increasing distance to forest owners in terms of sales and services work is largely dealt with by reorganisation of the sales process. Through trust-building activities such as modifying office structure and local work processes, and use of new technologies such as personalised forest websites/apps, previously local trust-building processes are being deliberately digitized and implemented through new technology and, in some cases, offices in cities. However, the results also suggest that these processes potentially affect the way in which forest as a resource and a place is constructed and interacted with. For example, it can be treated as an object of desire that is produced and marketed; as a place of knowledge and expertise that produces specific social and sales relations; and as a place of production to legitimize modern industrial forestry. Through this, forest management is constructed as an economic or technical issue that can be managed at a distance from the property.

The purpose of this essay was to evaluate the mobile application KATAM of accuracy, time, precision and practical use in comparison to volume estimation with data Digital Caliper and harvester report. The result of the diameter comparison showed similar estimates from KATAM and the Digital Caliper respectively. KATAM had a higher mean basel area, 7% and coarser mean diameter, 3.7%, compared to the Digital Caliper. KATAM also had overestimations in volume as compared to the harvesting report and the Digital Caliper concerning the mean stem, from 2.5% to 17.6%, depending on which sample areas were included and which version of KATAM was used. However, the basis of volume estimates was small and had error sources, which made the results of the measurements uncertain. Although the study shows an overestimation of the diameter, the mutual precision indicates that KATAM could be an alternative to the Digital Caliper when estimating the mean diameter.

Skogen spelar en viktig roll för att minska framtida klimatförändringar. Genom att enskilda skogsägare förlänger omloppstiden på skogsbestånd som uppnått lägsta slutavverkningsålder kommer skogen att bidra till att mer koldioxid binds upp. Detta scenario kan komma att hjälpa till så att Sverigesnår klimatmålet netto noll i koldioxidytsläpp till år 2045.Syftet med denna studie var därför att undersöka vilken ekonomiskt ersättning en enskild skogsägare kan få vid en förlängd omloppstid på 20 år men även om en förlängning av omloppstiden leder till att skogen blir en kolkälla i stället för att vara en aktiv kolsänka.Resultaten visade att vid högre ståndortsindex ökande och koldioxidinlagringen vilket genererade en högre subvention. Under den förlängda omloppstiden var skogen en aktiv kolsänka men att dess kapacitet att binda in koldioxid hade börjar minska. 

The development of technology and the mechanization in the Swedish forestry has during the last 60 years resulted in depopulation of the country side and due to that the amount of distance forest owners has increased. Therefore the forest companies need to make some adjustments in order to keep the distance forest owners as customers and to attract new ones. The purpose of this essay was to examine and analyze the distance forest owners satisfaction with Södras service offering and quality of service and further develop some proposals for action. A web-based survey was sent out to 634 distance forests owners in Stockholm, Sweden, all members of Södra. 269 respondents participated in the survey and of them, 27 did also participate in a follow-up telephone interview. The results show that the members generally was satisfied with the service offering and the quality of service. Suggestions for improvement regarding the service offering is all about implementing forest management courses in Stockholm and including providing financial and generational counseling, also on location in Stockholm. The quality of service can be improved if the inspector changes the way of working towards an even more customer adapted way and also improve the dialogue with the entrepreneurs. Further suggestions for improvement is to a greater extent welcome complaints and to give some compensation and/or apologize when it is motivated.

Naturvårdsbränning är en åtgärd som avser att återskapa effekterna avnaturliga skogsbränder genom att påverka det ekologiska systemet. Trotsfördelarna föreligger risker, såsom oönskad eskalering och spridning av eld,rök och glöd, vilket kan negativt påverka mark, människor och samhällen.Studiens syfte var att undersöka hur ansvariga inom Länsstyrelsen hanterarrisker genom identifiering av kritiska incidenter utifrån Critical IncidentTechnique (CIT) baserad på intervjuer, samt att bidra till att öka den allmännakunskapen kring åtgärden.Resultatet visade att naturvårdsbränningsansvariga tar stor hänsyn till riskeroch arbetar kontinuerligt för att minimera dem. Dock identifierades treförbättringsområden inom riskhanteringsarbetet: säkerhet under bränningar,kommunikation under bränningar och kommunikation med samhället.Förbättringar inom dessa områden kan minimera risker under bränningar,minska oron i samhället och antalet falsklarm samt öka tryggheten igenomförandet för allmänheten och naturvårdsbränningspersonal vidnaturvårdsbränningar.

The aim of this study was to investigate the attitudes of forest owners to direct sowing of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and also why so few have used the method. The study also aimed to identify reasons for forest owners to use or not to use the method. A questionnaire was sent to 240 non-industrial private forest owners (NIPFs) all over Sweden. As a complement, interviews were performed with forest companies from the north and middle parts of Sweden. The results showed that 15 % of the NIPFs respond that they had used the method direct sowing of pine at some occasion in the past. No forest owner origination from Götaland had used the method though. It was more common among those who owned a forest property of 100 hectares or more than among those who owned 49 hectares or less. Most of those who had used direct sowing in the past were satisfied with the outcome of the regeneration, 92 %, and 73 % were willing to use the method again. They also showed a more positive attitude to direct sowing, 86 %, compared to those who had not tried the method, where 23 % were positive and 69 % were neither positive nor negative. The main reason for not have used the method showed to be that the NIPFs answering this questionnaire had not thought about it. Of the companies interviewed in this study, Sveaskog and Holmen were the ones that have used direct sowing the most: Sveaskog sow 27 % of the yearly pine regeneration area and Holmen just over 20 % of the yearly pine regeneration area, including lodge pole pine (Pinus contorta Douglas ex Loudon). The main reason to why the companies have used direct sowing was that they consider the method cost effective. The also appreciate that the method results in a lot of stems per hectare which has been positive in areas where browsing is a problem. The results from the questionnaire showed that those had sown pine in the past tended to have a more positive attitude to the method than the forest owner that had not sown. This indicates that they have had a positive experience of the method. Nearly half of those who had not sown had neither a positive nor a negative attitude to it. One possible reason for it is that they had no experience of the method and therefore no opinion. Direct sowing works well to combine with other methods and can be adapted to different conditions. In a time when damage from browsing can cause big problems to regenerations of pine, sowing could be an important tool in the toolbox.

Denna studie har jämfört betesskadorna i sådda och planterade tallbestånd över en tvåårsperiod. Totalt inventerades sex olika bestånd, varav tre sådda och tre planterade, enligt samma metod som ÄBIN. Resultatet visar en trend mot mindre andel skador i de sådda bestånden men endast en signifikant skillnad i år tvås mätningar för andelen gamla skador och andelen obetade stammar. Skadenivåerna för ÄFO 5 Kinda i Östergötlands län är också enligt ÄBIN betydligt högre än vad studiens resultat visar.