This work demonstrated that the coupling of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction with slow pyrolysis is effective to remove over half of extractives from low quality wood and to generate biochar from remaining solid wood fractions. The high yields of extractives from supercritical carbon dioxide extraction illustrates the potential utilizing of low quality wood as an alternative feedstock for the sustainable production of value-added chemicals. Results showed that supercritical carbon dioxide extraction has neither a strong impact on the physical properties of original wood nor on the yield of solid biochar. These results are promising as they show that the biochar obtained for this renewable feedstock could be used as an alternative to fossil-based coke in applications including ferroalloy industries. Moreover, the heat treatment temperature and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction had a significant impact on the tar yields, leading to the increase in naphthalene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic and phenolic fractions with the greater temperature. The differences in gasification reactivity and dielectric properties of solid biochars, composition and yields of liquid products of non-treated pinewood and extracted wood fraction emphasize the impact of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction on the pyrolysis process. 

Covalent immobilization of an engineered omega-transaminase mutant Trp60Cys from Chromobacterium violaceum (CvTAW60C) was performed on bisepoxide-activated aminoalkyl resins. Activity of the various CvTAW60C preparations was evaluated in kinetic resolution of four racemic amines (rac-1a–d). The most active EA-G-CvTAW60C preparation (CvTAW60C attached to polymeric resin with ethylamine function activated with glycerol diglycidyl ether—EA-G) could perform the kinetic resolution of racemic 4-phenylbutan-2-amine (rac-1a) over 49% conversion up to 19 consecutive reaction cycles or in media containing up to 50% v/v DMSO as cosolvent in batch mode reactions. The immobilization process of CvTAW60C onto the EA-G resin filled in stainless steel bioreactors was also tested in flow-through mode. Kinetic resolution of three racemic amines containing aromatic moieties (rac-1a-c) was performed in continuous-flow mode resulting in easy-to-separate mixture of the corresponding ketone (2a–c) and the non-converted (R)-amine in high enantiopurity (ee(R)-1a-c ≥ 96%).

Rice straw was successfully converted to ethanol by separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation by Mucor indicus, Rhizopus oryzae, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The hydrolysis temperature and pH of commercial cellulase and β-glucosidase enzymes were first investigated and their best performance obtained at 45 °C and pH 5.0. The pretreatment of the straw with dilute-acid hydrolysis resulted in 0.72 g g-1 sugar yield during 48 h enzymatic hydrolysis, which was higher than steam-pretreated (0.60 g g-1) and untreated straw (0.46 g g-1). Furthermore, increasing the concentration of the dilute-acid pretreated straw from 20 to 50 and 100 g L-1 resulted in 13% and 16% lower sugar yield, respectively. Anaerobic cultivation of the hydrolyzates with M. indicus resulted in 0.36-0.43 g g-1 ethanol, 0.11-0.17 g g-1 biomass, and 0.04-0.06 g g-1 glycerol, which is comparable with the corresponding yields by S. cerevisiae (0.37-0.45 g g-1 ethanol, 0.04-0.10 g g-1 biomass and 0.05-0.07 glycerol). These two fungi produced no other major metabolite from the straw and completed the cultivation in less than 25 h. However, R. oryzae produced lactic acid as the major by-product with yield of 0.05-0.09 g g-1. This fungus had ethanol, biomass and glycerol yields of 0.33-0.41, 0.06-0.12, and 0.03-0.04 g g-1, respectively. 

Rice straw was successfully converted to ethanol by separate enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation by Mucor indicus, Rhizopus oryzae, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The hydrolysis temperature and pH of commercial cellulase and beta-glucosidase enzymes were first investigated and their best performance obtained at 45 degrees C and pH 5.0. The pretreatment of the straw with dilute-acid hydrolysis resulted in 0.72 g g (1) sugar yield during 48 h enzymatic hydrolysis, which was higher than steam-pretreated (0.60 g g (1)) and untreated straw (0.46 g g(-1)). Furthermore, increasing the concentration of the dilute-acid pretreated straw from 20 to 50 and 100 g L-1 resulted in 13% and 16% lower sugar yield, respectively. Anaerobic cultivation of the hydrolyzates with M. indicus resulted in 0.36-0.43 g g(-1) ethanol, 0.11-0.17 g g(-1) biomass, and 0.04-0.06 g g(-1) glycerol, which is comparable with the corresponding yields by S. cerevisiae (0.37-0.45 g g(-1) ethanol, 0.04-0.10 g g(-1) biomass and 0.05-0.07 glycerol). These two fungi produced no other major metabolite from the straw and completed the cultivation in less than 25 h. However, R. oryzae produced lactic acid as the major by-product with yield of 0.05-0.09 g g(-1). This fungus had ethanol, biomass and glycerol yields of 0.33-0.41, 0.06-0.12, and 0.03-0.04 g g(-1), respectively. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

From a circular economy perspective, one-pot strategies for the isolation of cellulose nanomaterials at a high yield and with multifunctional properties are attractive. Here, the effects of lignin content (bleached vs unbleached softwood kraft pulp) and sulfuric acid concentration on the properties of crystalline lignocellulose isolates and their films are explored. Hydrolysis at 58 wt % sulfuric acid resulted in both cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and microcrystalline cellulose at a relatively high yield (>55%), whereas hydrolysis at 64 wt % gave CNCs at a lower yield (<20%). CNCs from 58 wt % hydrolysis were more polydisperse and had a higher average aspect ratio (1.5-2×), a lower surface charge (2×), and a higher shear viscosity (100-1000×). Hydrolysis of unbleached pulp additionally yielded spherical nanoparticles (NPs) that were <50 nm in diameter and identified as lignin by nanoscale Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and IR imaging. Chiral nematic self-organization was observed in films from CNCs isolated at 64 wt % but not from the more heterogeneous CNC qualities produced at 58 wt %. All films degraded to some extent under simulated sunlight trials, but these effects were less pronounced in lignin-NP-containing films, suggesting a protective feature, but the hemicellulose content and CNC crystallinity may be implicated as well. Finally, heterogeneous CNC compositions obtained at a high yield and with improved resource efficiency are suggested for specific nanocellulose uses, for instance, as thickeners or reinforcing fillers, representing a step toward the development of application-tailored CNC grades. © 2023 The Authors. 

The biotechnological applications of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) continue to grow due to their sustainable nature, impressive mechanical, rheological, and emulsifying properties, upscaled production capacity, and compatibility with other materials, such as protein and polysaccharides. In this study, hydrogels from CNCs and pectin, a plant cell wall polysaccharide broadly used in food and pharma, were produced by calcium ion-mediated internal ionotropic gelation (IG). In the absence of pectin, a minimum of 4 wt% CNC was needed to produce self-supporting gels by internal IG, whereas the addition of pectin at 0.5 wt% enabled hydrogel formation at CNC contents as low as 0.5 wt%. Experimental data indicate that CNCs and pectin interact to give robust and self-supporting hydrogels at solid contents below 2.5 %. Potential applications of these gels could be as carriers for controlled release, scaffolds for cell growth, or wherever else distinct and porous network morphologies are required.

To develop anaerobic digestion (AD), innovative solutions to increase methane yields in existing AD processes are needed. In particular, the adoption of low energy pre-treatments to enhance biomass biodegradability is needed to provide efficient digestion processes increasing profitability. To obtain these features, hydrodynamic cavitation has been evaluated as an innovative solutions for AD of waste activated sludge (WAS), food waste (FW), macro algae and grass, in comparison with steam explosion (high energy pre-treatment). The effect of these two pre-treatments on the substrates, e.g. particle size distribution, soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD), biochemical methane potential (BMP) and biodegradability rate, have been evaluated. After two minutes of hydrodynamic cavitation (8 bar), the mean fine particle size decreased from 489- 1344 nm to 277- 381 nm (≤77% reduction) depending of the biomasses. Similar impacts were observed after ten minutes of steam explosion (210 °C, 30 bar) with a reduction in particle size between 40% and 70% for all the substrates treated.  In terms of BMP value, hydrodynamic cavitation caused significant increment only within the A. nodosum showing a post treatment increment of 44% compared to the untreated value, while similar values were obtained before and after treatment within the other tested substrates. In contrast, steam explosion allowed an increment for all treated samples, A. nodosum (+86%), grass (14%) and S. latissima (4%). However, greater impacts where observed with hydrodynamic cavitation than steam explosion when comparing the kinetic constant K. Overall, hydrodynamic cavitation appeared an efficient pre-treatment for AD capable to compete with the traditional steam explosion in terms om kinetics and providing a more efficient energy balance (+14%) as well as methane yield for A. nodosum.

Mucor indicus was cultivated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions to study its tolerance against high concentration of glucose up to 350 g/L and ethanol up to 120 g/L present in the medium. The fungus could grow well even in 350 g/L glucose and produce ethanol, but it was able to assimilate the entire glucose when its concentration was less than 200 g/L. On the other hand, M. indicus produced ethanol as the main product with yield and concentration up to 0.45 g/g and 73 g/L, respectively, while glycerol, its only major byproduct, was produced up to 24 g/L. However, the fungus was not so tolerant against exogenously added ethanol, and it could not grow with more than 40 g/L added ethanol to the culture. Under aerobic conditions, M. indicus displayed different morphology, switching from long filamentous to yeast-like growth forms by increasing initial glucose concentration. This implies that yeast-like growth can be induced by growing M. indicus at high glucose concentration. Under anaerobic conditions, only one yeast-like form was observed.

The valorisation of the plant biopolymer lignin is now recognised as essential to enabling the economic viability of the lignocellulosic biorefining industry. In this context, the lignin-first biorefining approach, in which lignin valorisation is considered in the design phase, has demonstrated the fullest utilisation of lignocellulose. We define lignin-first methods as active stabilisation approaches that solubilise lignin from native lignocellulosic biomass while avoiding condensation reactions that lead to more recalcitrant lignin polymers. This active stabilisation can be accomplished by solvolysis and catalytic conversion of reactive intermediates to stable products or by protection-group chemistry of lignin oligomers or reactive monomers. Across the growing body of literature in this field, there are disparate approaches to report and analyse the results from lignin-first approaches, thus making quantitative comparisons between studies challenging. To that end, we present herein a set of guidelines for analysing critical data from lignin-first approaches, including feedstock analysis and process parameters, with the ambition of uniting the lignin-first research community around a common set of reportable metrics. These guidelines comprise standards and best practices or minimum requirements for feedstock analysis, stressing reporting of the fractionation efficiency, product yields, solvent mass balances, catalyst efficiency, and the requirements for additional reagents such as reducing, oxidising, or capping agents. Our goal is to establish best practices for the research community at large primarily to enable direct comparisons between studies from different laboratories. The use of these guidelines will be helpful for the newcomers to this field and pivotal for further progress in this exciting research area.

The performance of a PEM fuel cell can be easily degraded by introducing impurities in the fuel gas. Since reformate of biogas from olive mill wastes will contain at least one third of carbon dioxide, its influence was studied on a PtRu catalyst. A clean reformate gas for the anode (67% H2 and 33% CO2) without any traces of other compounds was used and electrochemical measurements showed that the performance of the fuel cell was hardly affected. However, diluting the hydrogen with higher amounts of CO2 will reduce the performance remarkably.

The idea behind this chapter is to provide teachers and students with material that can be used while studying renewable energy sources with special attention paid to their complementary characteristics. The questions and exercises included below refer to chapters presented in the book. In case of any questions, we provide the readers with contact details to chapters corresponding authors who would be happy in assisting you in case of any queries.

Health related issues, stringent environmental protection policies, search for cost effective and alternative materials and quest for renewability, sustainability and high performance materials for technical applications has led to an intense research in manufacturing biobased composites which are based on renewable thermosetting resins and natural fibres. The combination of biobased thermosetting resins with two different natural fibre reinforcements could lead to improved mechanical properties of the composite. Biobased thermoset polymers are comparable to the synthetic thermosetting polymers from petrochemicals. In this study, two different biobased resins were used as matrix and both non woven flax fibre and woven flax fabric were combined as reinforcements. The composites were made by compression moulding process. The fibres were hand laid-up and impregnation was done manually. The curing temperature was 170°С and at 40 bar. The stacking sequence of the fibres was in different orientations such as 0º, +45º and 90º. The manufactured hybrid composites have high tensile strength and stiffness and the flexural strength and modulus was also high. These composites can compete favourably with glass fibre reinforced composites in terms of strength and stiffness.1, 2 A tensile strength of about 119 MPa and Young’s modulus of 13.8 GPa was achieved, while the flexural strength and modulus is about 201 MPa and 24 GPa respectively. For the purpose of comparison, composites were made with the combination of woven fabric and e-glass fibre. One ply of an e-glass fibre mat was put in the mid-plane and this increased the tensile strength considerably up to 168 MPa. Some of the composites were made with the resin blended with styrene and the results show a higher modulus.

Biobased thermosets resins were synthesized by functionalizing the triglycerides of epoxidized soybean oil with methacrylic acid, acetyl anhydride, and methacrylic anhydride. The obtained resins were characterized with FTIR, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR spectroscopy to confirm the functionalization reactions and the extent of epoxy conversion. The viscosities of the methacrylated soybean oil resins were also measured for the purpose of being used as a matrix in composite applications. The cross-linking capability was estimated by UV and thermally initiated curing experiments, and by DSC analysis regarding the degree of crosslinking. The modifications were successful because up to 97% conversion of epoxy group were achieved leaving only 2.2% of unreacted epoxy groups, which was confirmed by 1H-NMR. The 13C-NMR confirms the ratio of acetate to methacrylate methyl group to be 1 : 1. The viscosities of the methacrylated soybean oil (MSO) and methacrylic anhydride modified soybean oil (MMSO) were 0.2 and 0.48 Pas, respectively, which indicates that they can be used in resin transfer molding process.

Paper mills yield large volumes of sludge materials which pose an environmental and economic challenge for disposal, despite the fact that they could be a valuable source for cellulose nanofibres (CNF) production. The aim of the study was to evaluate the production process and properties of CNF prepared by mechanical fibrillation of never-dried and dried paper mill sludge (PMS). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) showed that average diameters for both never-dried and dried paper sludge nanofibres (PSNF) were less than 50 nm. The never-dried and dried sludge nanofibres showed no statistical significant difference (p > 0.05) in strength 92 MPa, and 85 MPa and modulus 11 GPa and 10 GPa. The study concludes that paper mill sludge can be used in a dried state for CNF production to reduce transportation and storage challenges posed on industrial scale.

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is a label-free, versatile and highly sensitive method for studying molecular interactions in real time. It is widely used by industry and academia alike in fields ranging from Alzheimer’s disease research to detection of heavy metals. In this review, studies published during the last 10 years using Biacore or other SPR instruments were compiled and compared. Trends were also identified in the field. Amine coupling was found to be the most common ligand strategy for proteins, and most SPR research related to the field of medicine. Furthermore, three main purposes of an SPR experiment were identified: To determine the affinity between a pair of molecules, kinetics between a pair of molecules or to detect a certain molecule in a solution. The results presented are often related to these three purposes, and are most often presented and evaluated in terms of kinetic, affinity and sensitivity constants. SPR can be used for studying a broad range of molecular interactions, and an overview was obtained by dividing up the field into different parts based on molecular interactions and SPR methods. The study of molecular interactions using SPR was divided into protein-protein interactions (PPIs), antibody-antigen, protein-biomolecule interactions, interactions between proteins and small molecules, and non-conventional SPR methods. Non-conventional SPR methods include localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) and SPR imaging (SPRi), which are both based on the same optical sensing principles as SPR. 

The effect of polymaleimide polymers on calcium carbonate crystallization was studied using nephelometry. Induction time and percent growth inhibition were determined for polymeric additives from the nephelometric data. The polymaleimide synthesized by KOH-initiated polymerization exhibited the greatest growth inhibition and longest nucleation time among the polymers investigated. Raman spectroscopy was used to determine the calcium carbonate polymorph formed in the presence of these polymeric additives.

Polycarboxylic acids are well-known to affect calcium carbonate crystallization. Agarwal et al. (Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2003, in press) reported previously the synthesis of polymaleimide by a variety of techniques and initiators. In the present work, the effect of these polymers on calcium carbonate crystallization was studied by a variety of techniques. Crystallization experiments were carried out in a 1-L LABMAX automated batch reactor, and the concentration of calcium in solution was determined in real time. Raman spectroscopy was used to determine the relative amount of various calcium carbonate polymorphs as the crystallization occurred. However, Raman spectroscopy is a scattering technique, which may make it surface selective, and therefore results from solids may not be representative of bulk of sample. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to compare the results obtained by Raman spectroscopy. Peak intensity ratios were used for both Raman spectroscopy and XRD for calibration and measurement purposes. The results obtained by these two techniques for final percent vaterite for calcium carbonate crystallization in the presence of polymeric additives were in agreement within 2%. Therefore, use of Raman spectroscopy for in situ measurement of polymorph composition during calcium carbonate crystallization appears accurate. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) data were useful in understanding the crystal morphology and to determine crystal size.

Simplified syntheses of polymaleimide employing anionic polymerization (from the melt and from solution) and metal compound-alcohol initiators such as PbO, SnO, tin bis(2-ethyl hexanoate) in the presence of tert-butyl benzyl alcohol are presented. The resulting polymers contain a combination of C-N- and C-C-connected monomers. Preliminary structures of the polymers were determined using NMR spectroscopy. The ratio of C-N- and C-C-connected monomers was determined, and the percentage of C-N-connected monomer units was found to vary from 40 to 80%, with the higher percentage resulting from anionic polymerization. The molecular weights of the polymers, as determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) with aqueous mobile phase and sodium polyacrylates standards, ranged between 1100 and 4200 for anionic polymerization and were about 11 500 for metal oxide-alcohol initiated polymerization. Solution-phase properties of the polymaleimides were evaluated by calcium chelation and precipitation inhibition studies. On the basis of the measured properties of these polymers, they are proposed as biodegradable, low-impact detergent additives to substitute currently used compounds.

A high stringency protocol, suitable for systematic purification of polyclonal antibodies, is described. The procedure is designed to allow the generation of target protein-specific antibodies suitable for functional annotation of proteins. Antibodies were generated by immunization with recombinantly produced affinity-tagged target proteins. To obtain stringent recovery of the antibodies, a two-step affinity chromatography principle was devised to first deplete the affinity tag-specific antibodies followed by a second step for affinity capture of the target protein-specific antibodies. An analytical dot-blot array system was developed to analyze the cross-reactivity of the affinity-purified antibodies. The results suggest that the protocol can be used in a highly parallel and automated manner to generate mono-specific polyclonal antibodies for large-scale, antibody-based proteomics efforts, i.e. affinity proteomics.

 We describe a novel method for transcript profiling based on high-throughput parallel sequencing of signature tags using a non-gel-based microtiter plate format. The method relies on the identification of cDNA clones by pyrosequencing of the region corresponding to the 3'-end of the mRNA preceding the poly(A) tail. Simultaneously, the method can be used for gene discovery, since tags corresponding to unknown genes can be further characterized by extended sequencing. The protocol was validated using a model system for human atherosclerosis. Two 3'-tagged cDNA libraries, representing macrophages and foam cells, which are key components in the development of atherosclerotic plaques, were constructed using a solid phase approach. The libraries were analyzed by pyrosequencing, giving on average 25 bases. As a control, conventional expressed sequence tag (EST) sequencing using slab gel electrophoresis was performed. Homology searches were used to identify the genes corresponding to each tag. Comparisons with EST sequencing showed identical, unique matches in the majority of cases when the pyrosignature was at least 18 bases. A visualization tool was developed to facilitate differential analysis using a virtual chip format. The analysis resulted in identification of genes with possible relevance for development of atherosclerosis. The use of the method for automated massive parallel signature sequencing is discussed.

Saprolegnia parasitica är en av de mest skadliga oomycetpatogenerna som orsakar många problem inom vattenbruket. Den påverkar vuxen fisk, fiskägg och ungfisk. För närvarande finns det ingen effektiv och miljösäker behandling mot S. parasitica, vilket understryker vikten av att utveckla ett nytt sätt att kontrollera patogenet. Toxicitetsbelastningen kan minskas genom att ha en mycket specifik behandling. Att uppnå detta skulle kräva en förståelse för de fysiologiska och molekylära vägarna som är involverade i patogenutvecklingen, infektionsprocessen och värdspecificiteten, för att hitta målproteiner. Majoriteten av Saprolegniales forskning har koncentrerats på utsöndrade proteaser och intracellulära effektorer, men rollen av kolhydrataktiva enzymer (CAZymes) i infektionen har försummats. Kitinaser är CAZymer och mer specifikt hydrolyserar glykosidhydrolasenzymer beta-1,4-bindningar i kitin. Kitin är en strukturell polysackarid som finns i exoskelettet hos kräftdjur och epitelceller hos fiskfjäll. S. parasitica kan etablera infektionen genom användning av kitinaser. Målet med projektet är att hitta fler kitinaser som för närvarande är okarakteriserade proteiner av S. parasitica. Bioinformatiska tillvägagångssätt används för att förutsäga potentiella kitinaser, och ytterligare experimentell funktionell karakterisering av förutsagt protein. 

Åtta okarakteriserade förutsagda proteiner av S. parasitica erhölls från sekvensanalys av kitinaser från familjen GH18 med Enzyme Commission-numret: 3.2.1.14 för att vara potentiella kitinaser. Av dessa åtta proteinsekvenser är två SPRG_10284 och SPRG_09577 de mest lovande. Dessa kan testas ytterligare experimentellt och båda förutspås vara lösliga proteiner. SPRG_10284 har framgångsrikt uttryckts i Escherichia coli stammar Rosetta 2 och BL21(DE3). Protokollen för proteinuttryck, extraktion och rening måste dock standardiseras för att erhålla en stor mängd lösligt protein.

PR-39, a proline/arginine-rich peptide antibiotic, has been purified from pig intestine and later shown to originate in the bone marrow. Intending to isolate a clone for a human counterpart to PR-39, we synthesized a PCR probe derived from the PR-39 gene. However, when this probe was used to screen a human bone marrow cDNA library, eight clones were obtained with information for another putative human peptide antibiotic, designated FALL-39 after the first four residues. FALL-39 is a 39-residue peptide lacking cysteine and tryptophan. All human peptide antibiotics previously isolated (or predicted) belong to the defensin family and contain three disulfide bridges. The clone for prepro-FALL-39 encodes a cathelin-like precursor protein with 170 amino acid residues. We have postulated a dibasic processing site for the mature FALL-39 and chemically synthesized the putative peptide. In basal medium E, synthetic FALL-39 was highly active against Escherichia coli and Bacillus megaterium. Residues 13-34 in FALL-39 can be predicted to form a perfect amphiphatic helix, and CD spectra showed that medium E induced 30% helix formation in FALL-39. RNA blot analyses disclosed that the gene for FALL-39 is expressed mainly in human bone marrow and testis.

In this work, rhamnolipid biosurfactant as an eco-friendly and biodegradable cleaning agent was produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria and was used to evaluate the chemical cleaning efficiency of whey fouled ultrafiltration membranes. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the successful synthesis of rhamnolipid. The produced rhamnolipid was compared to chemical cleaners including sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and Tween 20. Ultrafiltration membranes used for fouling and cleaning analysis were prepared using phase inversion via immersion precipitation technique. For studying the fouling mechanisms, Hermia's model adapted to cross-flow was used. From the fouling mechanism experiments, it was found that the complete blocking and cake formation were the dominant fouling mechanisms. The highest values of cleaning efficiency were achieved using rhamnolipid and NaOH as cleaning agents with the flux recovery of 100%, but with considering the low concentration of the rhamnolipid used in the cleaning solution compared to NaOH (0.3 versus 4 g/L for NaOH), its application is preferred. 

Sustainable provision of chemicals and materials is undoubtedly a defining factor in guaranteeing economic, environmental, and social stability of future societies. Among the most sought-after chemical building blocks are volatile fatty acids (VFAs). VFAs such as acetic, propionic, and butyric acids have numerous industrial applications supporting from food and pharmaceuticals industries to wastewater treatment. The fact that VFAs can be produced synthetically from petrochemical derivatives and also through biological routes, for example, anaerobic digestion of organic mixed waste highlights their provision flexibility and sustainability. In this regard, this review presents a detailed overview of the applications associated with petrochemically and biologically generated VFAs, individually or in mixture, in industrial and laboratory scale, conventional and novel applications.

In this thesis, materials from renewable resources were used to develop functionalized surfaces for water treatment. The work is thus inspired by, and contributes to, the United Nations sustainable goals of: (i) clean water and sanitation, (ii) climate action, (iii) responsible consumption and production, (iv) life below water, and (v) partnerships for the goals.

Nanopolysaccharides, most specifically nanocellulose and nanochitin, are great candidates for functional and renewable materials for multiple applications, including the treatment of water and wastewater. This thesis focused on the formulation of different types of nanopolysaccharide-based coatings to enhance the performance of commercially available membranes and cellulose fabrics. We developed a simple waterborne layer-by-layer cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (T-CNF) coating for commercially available membranes. By changing the surface and pore structure of the membrane, the coating tuned which substrates could pass through the membrane, improved antifouling performanced, and when derived from T-CNF, it was harmful to bacterial colonization. Considering the observed T-CNF’s effect on bacteria, we developed a chemically crosslinked T-CNF/Poly(vinyl) alcohol (PVA) coating with outstanding antibiofouling performance, ion adsorption/rejection combined with size exclusion, and with dimensional and pH stability. Furthermore, we used a surface-impregnation approach based on bio-based nanotechnology which resulted in highly efficient, with improved mechanical properties, and fully bio-based high-flux water filtration membranes using commercially available nonwoven fabrics. Membranes with coatings prepared from CNC, chitin nanocrystals (ChNC) and T-CNF separated particles in the size range of bacteria and viruses, and those prepared from also T-CNF showed high microplastic filtration efficiency. Moreover, membrane coating based on ChNC and T-CNF had outstanding antibacterial properties.

Overall, we demonstrated that nanopolysaccharide coatings on membranes could provide a significant reduction in organic fouling and biofilm formation while enabling the adsorption of ions and separation of microplastics. In the case of biofilm formation, the functional group and surface charge of the different nanopolysaccharides determined the effect over bacteria, indicating that surfaces could be tailored against microbes. In addition, we directly compared the effect of the different nanopolysaccharides of interest (CNC, T-CNF, ligno-celullose nanocrystals (L-CNC), and ChNC) on bacterial viability and biofilm formation, and found a great difference between the different types of nanocellulose and a different mechanism for nanochitin. Thorough, none of the nanopolysaccharides displayed cytotoxic effects while in indirect contact with the bacterial cells. Nevertheless, T-CNF, ChNC and L-CNC showed a cytostatic effect on bacterial proliferation. Furthermore, the nanomechanical properties of the bacterial cells and interacting forces between the nanopolysaccharides and Escherichia coli (E. coli) were affected when in direct contact with the nanopolysaccharide surfaces.

Lastly, we upscaled one of our coating processes, demonstrating that the method could be easily implemented at an industrial level. The impact of this thesis relies on the effectiveness of the coatings, the different types of functionalities observed, the demonstrated fast implementation at an industrial scale, and the potential to extrapolate this technology to other applications.

In this work two different examples of water absorbtion in polymers are studied by Monte Carlo simulations. Both of them are of large technical and commercial impotance. The first example is the water absorption in polyethylene cables where the water absorption plays a crucial role in the degradation of the cable insulation and thus should be as low as possible. The second example is bio-based superabsorbents made from denatured protein where water absorption capability is the prime desired property. Methods Gibbs Ensemble Monte Carlo simulations [1] were used to study the hydration of polymers. All simulations are performed with two boxes, one of which is filled with water at the start of the simulation, whereas the other contains polymer molecules and possible ions. The polymer molecules are not allowed to swap boxes whereas the water molecules are allowed to do so thus constituting an osmotic Gibbs ensemble [2]. For the polyethylene a connectivity-altering algorithm was used whereas the protein molecules were simulated using a side-chain regrowth model in addition to traditional Monte Carlo moves. For the polyethylene, the TraPPE [3] force field was used and the protein molecules, the Amber force field [4] was used. Water was modelled using simple point charge models [5]. Electrostatic interactions are treated using Ewald summation methods. The protein molecules were of different amino acid compositions and in different conformations, e.g., β-turns and random coils obtained using the amorphous cell method[6]. Studies were made with different degrees of charging on, e.g., lysine side chains mimicking different ionization states. Results The studies of polyethylene revealed the importance of ions left from the polymerisation catalyst for the absorbtion of water and the concomitant degradation of polyethylene cable insulation. Also the absorption properties of the protein molecules is strongly related to the presence of charged groups and fully charged protein molecules absorb large amounts of water. However, neither native nor denatured protein molecules show superabsorbing properties (i.e. absorbing hundreds of times their own mass) as they show in experimental studies and the reasons for this discrepancy will be discussed. References 1. A.Z. Panagiotopoulos, Mol. Phys. 61, 813 (1987). 2. E. Johansson, K. Bolton, D.N. Theodorou, P. Ahlström, J. Chem. Phys., 126, 224902 (2007). 3. M.G. Martin, and J.I. Siepmann, J. Phys. Chem. B, 103, 4508-4517 (1999). 4. W.D. Cornell, P. Cieplak, C.I. Bayly, I.R. Gould, K.M. Merz Jr, D.M. Ferguson, D.C. Spellmeyer, T. Fox, J.W. Caldwell, P.A. Kollman (1995). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117, 5179–5197. 5. H. J. C. Berendsen, J. P. M. Postma and W. F. van Gunsteren, in Intermolecular Forces, B. Pullman, ed. (Reidel, Dordrecht, 1981) p. 331; H. J. C. Berendsen, J. R. Grigera and T. P. Straatsma, J. Phys. Chem. 91, 6269 (1987). 6. D.N. Theodorou, U.W. Suter, Macromolecules, 18, 1467 (1985).

Targeting antigens to antigen-presenting cells (APC) improve their immunogenicity and capacity to induce Th1 responses and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). We have generated a mucin-type immunoglobulin fusion protein (PSGL-1/mIgG_2b), which upon expression in the yeast Pichia pastoris became multivalently substituted with O-linked oligomannose structures and bound the macrophage mannose receptor (MMR) and dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3 grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN) with high affinity in vitro. Here, its effects on the humoral and cellular anti-ovalbumin (OVA) responses in C57BL/6 mice are presented.

OVA antibody class and subclass responses were determined by ELISA, the generation of anti-OVA CTLs was assessed in ⁵¹Cr release assays using in vitro-stimulated immune spleen cells from the different groups of mice as effector cells and OVA peptide-fed RMA-S cells as targets, and evaluation of the type of Th cell response was done by IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-5 ELISpot assays.

Immunizations with the OVA − mannosylated PSGL-1/mIgG_2b conjugate, especially when combined with the AbISCO®-100 adjuvant, lead to faster, stronger and broader (with regard to IgG subclass) OVA IgG responses, a stronger OVA-specific CTL response and stronger Th1 and Th2 responses than if OVA was used alone or together with AbISCO®-100. Also non-covalent mixing of mannosylated PSGL-1/mIgG_2b, OVA and AbISCO®-100 lead to relatively stronger humoral and cellular responses. The O-glycan oligomannoses were necessary because PSGL-1/mIgG_2b with mono- and disialyl core 1 structures did not have this effect.

Mannosylated mucin-type fusion proteins can be used as versatile APC-targeting molecules for vaccines and as such enhance both humoral and cellular immune responses.

This study investigates the conversion of benzene in a novel highly non-porous ɣ-Al₂O₃ packed bed reactor at 1000–1100 °C. The influences of packed bed presence, reforming medium (steam and CO₂), gas flow rate and benzene concentration on steady state benzene conversion are examined. In presence of packed bed, benzene conversions of 52, 75, and 84% were achieved with combined steam and CO₂ reforming at 1000, 1050, and 1100 °C, respectively. Whereas, benzene conversion of 65% without the packed bed at 1000 °C experienced a continuous increase in differential upstream pressure (DUP) of high temperature (HT) filter at reactor downstream due to deposition of in situ generated coke. High concentrations of generated CO and H₂ of 2.3 and 6 vol% with packed bed than 1.4 and 4.7 vol% without the packed respectively, were achieved. CO₂ reforming achieved high benzene conversions of 68–98% than 42–80% achieved with stream reforming at packed bed reactor temperatures of 1000–1100 °C. The results indicated that presence of ɣ-Al₂O₃ packed bed with possible surface reactions directed the conversion of benzene to combustible gases instead of coke. Hence, ɣ-Al₂O₃ packed bed reactor could be a suitable choice for coke-free conversion of tar of gasifier producer gas.

The present work describes the screening of thermotolerant bacteria isolated from Thar Desert environmental samples for lipase activity and their catalytic efficiencies, such as tolerance to extreme pHs, temperatures, and organic solvents, and efficiency to synthesize biodiesel from waste cooking oils. The selected lipases were thermos-alkaliphilic in nature showing good activity at higher temperatures and in the alkaline pH range with optimal activity at 45 °C and pH 8 or 9. The lipases efficiently converted oils to biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester), giving up to 78% conversion under specific reaction conditions. The enzyme (lipase) mediated biodiesel production will soon offer an eco-friendly and sustainable energy source for automobiles and industrial applications. The thermos-alkaliphilic properties of these lipases along with their efficiency to produce fatty acid methyl ester from waste cooking oil and methanol as well as other prospective applications, make them potential candidates for biodiesel production and other prospective applications such as the synthesis of flavor and fragrance esters and remediation of various environmental pollutants.

Studying the impregnation and distribution of oil-based preservative in dried wood is complicated as wood is a nonhomogeneous, hygroscopic and porous material, and especially of anisotropic nature. However, this study is important since it has influence on the durability of wood. To enhance the durability of thermally modified wood, a new method for preservative impregnation is introduced, avoiding the need for external pressure or vacuum. This article presents a study on preservative distribution in thermally treated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) sapwood using computed tomography scanning, light microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Secondary treatment of thermally modified wood was performed on a laboratory scale by impregnation with two types of preservatives, viz. Elit Träskydd (Beckers) and pine tar (tar), to evaluate their distribution in the wood cells. Preservative solutions were impregnated in the wood using a simple and effective method. Samples were preheated to 170°C in a drying oven and immediately submerged in preservative solutions for simultaneous impregnation and cooling. Tar penetration was found higher than Beckers, and their distribution decreased with increasing sample length. Owing to some anatomical properties, uptake of preservatives was low in spruce. Besides, dry-induced interstitial spaces, which are proven important flow paths for seasoned wood, were not observed in this species.

An experiment was conducted on commercially heat-treated (HT) Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) sapwood collected from Ht Wood AB, Arvidsjaur, Sweden. Secondary treatment on HT wood was performed in laboratory scale by impregnating with water-repellent preservatives (a commercial one and pine tar) to evaluate their retention and different moisture-related properties. Preservative solutions were impregnated using a simple and effective method. Wood samples were heated at 170°C in a dry oven and were immediately immersed in preservative solutions. Considerable retention was observed in HT wood, particularly in pine. Moisture adsorption properties were measured after conditioning in a high-humidity environmental chamber (4°C and 84% RH). Experimental results showed that secondary treatment enhanced moisture excluding efficiencies by decreasing equilibrium moisture content, suggesting better hydrophobicity. Soaking test in water showed that antiswelling and water repellence efficiencies improved, especially in tar-treated wood. In addition, this type of treatment significantly decreased water absorption. It was also possible to decrease volumetric swellings. Thus, secondary treatment of HT wood with preservative, in particular with tar, improved dimensional stability and water repellency.

Approximately, 13.5 % of the standing volume of productive forest land in Sweden is covered by birch and aspen, which provides the vast potential to produce value-added products such as densified wood. This study shows whether it is possible to densify those species with a thermo-hygro-mechanical (THM) process using heat, steam, and pressure. In this process, transverse compression on thin European aspen (Populus tremula) and downy birch (Betula pubescens) boards was performed at 200 ºC with a maximum steam pressure of 550 kPa. To obtain a theoretical 50 % compression set, the press’s maximum hydraulic pressure ranged from 1.5 to 7.3 MPa. Preliminary tests showed that ~75 % of the birch boards produced defects (blisters/blows) while only 25 % of the aspen boards did. Mainly, radial delamination associated with internal checks in intrawall and transwall fractures caused small cracks (termed blisters) while blows are characterized by relatively larger areas of delamination visible as a bumpy surface on the panel. Anatomical investigations revealed that birch was more prone to those defects than aspen. However, those defects could be minimized by increasing the pre-treatment time during the THM processing.

The aim of this experiment was to impregnate thermally modified wood using an easy and cost-effective method. Industrially processed thermally modified European aspen (Populus tremula L.) and birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) were collected and secondarily treated at the laboratory scale with the preservatives tung oil, pine tar and Elit Träskydd (Beckers) using a simple and effective method. Preservative uptake and distribution in sample boards were evaluated using computed tomography (CT) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques. Preservative uptake and treatability in terms of void volume filled were found the highest in Beckers and the lowest in tung oil-treated samples. Thermally modified samples had lower treatability than their counterpart control samples. More structural changes after thermal modification, especially in birch, significantly reduced the preservative uptake and distribution. The differences of preservatives uptake near the end grain were high and then decreased near the mid position of the samples length as compared with similar type of wood sample. Non-destructive evaluation by CT scanning provided a very useful method to locate the preservative gradients throughout the sample length. SEM analysis enabled the visualization of the preservative deposits in wood cells at the microstructural level.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood lumber was collected after kiln drying and preservative treatment with Celcure AC 800 (a copper-amine wood preservative). Distribution of the preservative throughout the lumber was visually examined. Not all, but some samples showed specific localized areas without any preservative distribution throughout their entire length. Those samples were assessed further for anatomical properties, specifically in impregnated and unimpregnated areas. Additional study was conducted on the morphological nature and redistribution of lipophilic extractives using three different histochemical staining methods. Intrinsic wood properties – especially the frequency of axial resin canals and the percentage of canals blocked – were found to be responsible for the irregular distribution of the preservative. Furthermore, the inability to create continuous and frequent interstitial spaces due to the collapse of thin-walled ray cells throughout the lumber resulted in uneven distribution of preservatives. Staining techniques were useful to localize places with more or less abundance of extractives (e.g., fats) in impregnated and unimpregnated wood, which varied considerably. Histochemical observations revealed information pertaining to the kiln dry specific distribution and redistribution of extractives between the areas. Moreover, resin reallocation and modification in ray parenchyma and resin canals induced by kiln drying would be another reason for the impregnation anomalies.

The purpose of this study was to develop fast, simple and robust solid wood mould testing methods for the use in small-scale laboratory tests. The objective was to investigate mould susceptibility of different wood materials within the batches. The proposed method is based on natural contamination of non-sterile surfaces in climates conducive to mould growth. For this purpose, a climate chamber with regulated temperature and relative humidity was used. The conditioning chamber was divided into upper and lower chamber by a thin layer of stainless steel placed horizontally above the fan to minimise air circulation to the sample in the upper compartment. Mould-infected samples from outdoor tests were used as a source of mould inocula, and test trials were conducted on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood. Samples were suspended from the top of the upper chamber, and the chamber was exposed to different temperature and humidity levels. Severe mould infestation was observed after 12-14 days of incubation. Visual mould rating was then performed. Regardless of some constraints, this test method was very simple, fast, and effective. More importantly, unlike other test methods, it closely models mould infestation as it would occur under natural condition.

The development of mould on wood surfaces depends on several factors. Although mould does not affect the mechanical properties of wood, it greatly reduces the aesthetic value of wood like the sapwood of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), which is very prone to mould. In addition, adverse health effects of mould on humans are also a great concern. Different types of dried and treated wood were used to observe whether they had enhanced durability against mould following an accelerated laboratory test method in a climate chamber. Samples were green, air-dried, industrially thermally-modified, treated with copper-based preservative, and kiln-dried wood, which were tested within a single test run. The test produced the following main results: the thermal modification increased the durability of the wood, and the protective effectiveness of alternative treatments was comparable to that of commercially available copper-based treatment. However, the initial moisture content of the samples during mould exposure had a great influence on the onset of mould growth. The risk of mould susceptibility of industrial kiln-dried lumber can be reduced by drying using the double-layering technique which likely forced the nutrients to deposit near the evaporation surfaces followed by planing off the nutrient enriched edges.

We test the hypothesis that the combination of kiln drying of double-stacked boards and contact heat treatment will reduce the susceptibility of treated boards to colonization by mold fungi. Winter-felled Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood boards were double-stacked in an industrial kiln in ‘‘sapwood out’’ and ‘‘sapwood in’’ positions. Dried samples were then contact heat-treated using a hot press at three different temperatures (140°C, 170°C, and 200°C) for three different periods (1, 3, and 10 min). Accelerated mold test was performed in a climate chamber where naturally mold infected samples were used as a source of mold inocula. Contact heat treatment degraded the saccharides which accumulated at dried surfaces, and reduced the mold growth. The threshold temperature and time for inhibiting mold growth was 170°C for 10 min. But, for industrial application, the most feasible combination of temperature and time would be 200°C for 3 min. We concluded that double stacking/contact heat treatment used is an environmentally friendly alternative to chemicals for reducing mold on Scots pine sapwood boards.

The content of glyceraldehyde-2-aryl ether type structure in water soluble LCC fractions, which was obtained from Japanese cedar and birch residual wood meal after MWL isolation, was determined by the use of ozonation method. Quite high amount of glyceraldehyde-2-aryl ether type structure was found in water soluble LCC fractions of both species, which was about 3-5 times higher than that of other fractions. This result as well as the high content of β-1 structure in these fractions shown in our previous papers suggest that lignin in these fractions has characteristics as endwise type lignin, because abundance of both of these structures are typical for this type of lignin. These results are in good accordance with the generally accepted hypothesis that glyceraldehyde-2-aryl ether type structure and β-1 structure are generated at the same time by radical coupling reaction. It was also indicated that these two structures are present very close to each other in lignin.

Blocking of the NKG2A receptor expressed on NK cells and CD8+ T cells with an anti-NKG2A antibody for elicitation of cytolytic activity, is a promising immune checkpoint in cancer immunotherapy. EXX1, a novel TCR-like antibody with specificity for the NKG2A ligand, Qa-1^b - a murine non-classical MHC class Ib ortholog of HLA-E - has been assessed in tumor models in vitro. The antibody only engages with Qa-1^b when it presents the dominant peptide Qdm, derived from the leader sequence of the classical MHC class Ia H-2D. This raises questions about the structural features of antigen presentation by Qa-1^b, and the molecular parameters driving the specificity of the TCR-like antibody. The purpose of this study is to determine and compare the crystal structures of Qa-1^b in complex with Qdm (AMAPRTLLL) and peptide 001 (AQAERTPEL). The Qa-1^b heavy chain and mouse beta-2 microglobulin were recombinantly expressed in E.coli, refolded in the presence of respective peptide, purified using size exclusion chromatography and crystallized with the hanging drop vapor diffusion method. Thermal stability of the MHC/peptide complexes was assessed with nano differential scanning fluorimetry, implying a higher stability of Qa-1^b/001. Crystals of the Qa-1^b/Qdm and Qa-1b/001 were obtained with 8% PEG4000, 10 mM NiCl2, 0.1 M sodium acetate at pH 5.7, and 10% PEG4000, 10mM NiCl2 and 0.1 M sodium acetate at pH 6.0, respectively. The structure of Qa-1^b/001 was resolved by molecular replacement at 2.43 Å, and the presence of negatively charged side chains that protrude from the binding groove, may imply that differences in electrostatic interactions between Qdm and 001 will determine antibody-binding. Further structural characterizations, of Qa-1^b complexes with bound EXX1 are of great interest.

Here light scattering theory is used to assess the size distribution in a suspension of cellulose as it is fibrillated from micro-scaled to nano-scaled fibres. A model based on Monte carlo simulations of the scattering of photons by different sizes of cellulose fibres was used to predict the UV-IF spectrum of the suspensions. Bleached cellulose hardwood pulp was tested and compared to the visually transparent tempo-oxidised hardwood cellulose nanofibres (CNF) suspension. The theoretical results show that different diameter size classes exhibit very different scattering patterns. These classes could be identified in the experimental results and used to establish the size class dominating the suspension. A comparison to AFM/microscope size distribution was made and the results indicated that using the UV-IF light scattering spectrum maybe more reliable that size distribution measurement using AFM and microscopy on dried CNF samples. The UV-IF spectrum measurement combined with the theoretical prediction can be used even at this initial stage of development of this model to assess the degree of fibrillation when processing CNF.

The emphasis of this study have been to study if impregnation of cellulose nanofibre networks can be made using a thermoplastic polymer as a matrix and to estimate the reinforcing efficiency of the cellulose nanofibres in this composite. A nanofibre network with higher porosity that water-dried nanofibre network was prepared from a cellulose waste byproduct (sludge). This was impregnated using a diluted solution of cellulose acetate butyrate polymer to produce a 60 wt. % CNF/CAB composite. This composite was characterized using microscopy and mechanical testing. High porosity is seen in the SEM images of the acetone-dried fibre network and SEM and film transparency was used to qualitatively assess the impregnation of the network. A significant improvement in the visible light transmittance was observed for the nanocomposite film compared to the nanofibre network as a result of the impregnation. The reinforcing efficiency was calculated based on a model of the nanocomposite and compared to other nanocomposites in the literature. The efficiency factor takes into account the volume fraction and the stiffness of the matrix. This showed that this CNF/CAB combination is similar in efficiency to CNF/PLA nanocomposites and more efficient that nanocomposites using when using stiffer matrices. It was also more efficient CNF nanocomposites based on Chitosan, which has the same stiffness. It is still however not as efficient as traditional glass polymer composites due to the random orientation of the fibres nor nanocomposites with very soft matrices due to the dominating network effect of the CNF in such composites. In conclusion, CAB impregnated cellulose nanofibre networks are promising biocomposite materials that could be used in applications where transparency and good mechanical properties are of interest. The key elements in the impregnation process of the nanocomposites were the use of a porous networks and a low viscosity thermoplastic resin solution.

A model of attenuation of ultrasound in fibre suspensions is compared to a model of backscattering pressure from submersed cylinders subjected to a sound wave. This analysis is carried out in the region where the wavelength is of the same order as that of the diameter of the fibre. In addition we assume the cylinder scatterer to have no intrinsic attenuation and the longitudinal axis of the scatterer is assumed to be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the incident wave. Peaks in the frequency response of both the backscattering pressure, expressed in the form of a form function, and the attenuation are shown to correspond. Similarities between the models are discussed. Since the peaks in the form function are due to resonance of the cylinder, we infer that the peaks in the attenuation are also due to resonance. The exact nature of the waves causing the resonance are still unclear however the first resonance peaks are related to the shear wave and hence the shear modulus of the material. The aim is to use the attenuation model for solving the inverse problem of calculating paper pulp material properties from attenuation measurements. The implications of these findings for paper pulp property estimation is that the supporting fluid could, if possible, be matched to density of that of pulp fibres and that the estimation of material properties should be improved by selecting a frequency range that in the region of the first resonance peaks.

Estimates of the material properties of hollow fibers suspended in a fluid using ultrasound measurements and a simple, computationally efficient analytical model are made. The industrial application is to evaluate the properties of wood fibers in paper pulp. The necessity of using a layered cylindrical model (LCM) as opposed to a solid cylindrical model (SCM) for modeling ultrasound attenuation in a suspension of hollow fibers is evaluated. The two models are described and used to solve the inverse problem of estimating material properties from attenuation in suspensions of solid and hollow polyester fibers. The results show that the measured attenuation of hollow fibers differs from that of solid fibers. Elastic properties estimates using LCM with hollow-fiber suspension measurements are similar to those using SCM with solid-fiber suspension measurements and compare well to block polyester values for elastic moduli. However, using the SCM with the hollow-fiber suspension did not produce realistic estimations. In conclusion, the LCM gives reasonable estimations of hollow fiber properties and the SCM is not sufficiently complex to model hollow fibers. The results also indicate that the use of a distributed radius in the model is important in estimating material properties from fiber suspensions.

Addressing issues around the processing of cellulose nanofibres (CNF) composites is important in establishing their use as sustainable, renewable polymer reinforcements. Here, CNF networks of different porosity were made with the aim of increasing their permeability and suitability for processing by vacuum infusion (VI). The CNF networks were infused with epoxy using two different strategies. The permeability, morphology and mechanical properties of the dry networks and the resulting nanocomposites were investigated. Calculated fill-times for CNF networks with 50% porosity were the shortest, but are only less than the gel-time of the epoxy if capillary effects are included. In experiments the CNF networks were clearly wetted. However low transparency indicated that impregnation was incomplete. The modulus and strength of the dry CNF networks increased rapidly with decreasing porosity, but their nanocomposites did not follow this trend, showing instead similar mechanical properties to each other. The results demonstrated that increasing the porosity of the CNF networks to ≈ 50% gives better impregnation resulting in a lower ultimate strength, a higher yield strength and no loss in modulus. Better use of the flow channels in the inherently layered CNF networks could potentially reduce void content in these nanocomposites and thus increase their mechanical properties.