Palladium-catalyzed oxidative annulations between phenols and alkenylcarboxylic acids produced a library of benzofuran compounds. Depending on the nature of the substitution of the phenol precursor, either 2,3-dialkylbenzofurans or 2-alkyl-3-methylene-2,3-dihydrobenzofurans can be synthesized with excellent regioselectivity. Reactions between conjugated 5-phenylpenta-2,4-dienoic acids and phenol gave 3-alkylidenedihydrobenzofuran alkaloid motifs while biologically active 7-arylbenzofuran derivatives were prepared by starting from 2-phenylphenols. More interestingly, selective incorporation of deuterium from D2O has been discovered, which offers an attractive one-step method to access deuterated compounds.
Oxidative coupling is a useful tool to synthesize vinylarenes. Despite remarkable successes in linear vinylarene, branched vinylarene synthesis has remained underdeveloped. Overcoming this limitation, herein, we report a chelation-assisted oxidative coupling to generate branched olefinated product in high yield. Exclusive branched selectivity was obtained using alkenyl carboxylic acid. Detailed experimental studies combined with computational investigations suggest that beta-migratory insertion, followed by a decarboxylation pathway is operative for the overall transformation.
Direct allylboration of various acyclic and cyclic aldimine, ketimine and indole substrates was performed using allylboronic acids. The reaction proceeds with very high anti-stereoselectivity for both E and Z imines. The allylboroxines formed by dehydration of allylboronic acids have a dual effect: promoting E/Z isomerization of aldimines and triggering the allylation by efficient electron withdrawal from the imine substrate.
The catalytic asymmetric allylboration of cyclic imines with gamma,gamma-disubstituted allylboronic acids provides products with adjacent stereocenters in high yield and stereoselectivity. Various electrophiles, including 3,4-dihydroisoquinolines and indoles, were prenylated in a fully stereodivergent fashion by switching the E/Z geometry of the allylboronate and/or the enantiomer of the BINOL catalyst. 3-Methylindole provided products with three adjacent stereocenters with high stereoselectivity in one synthetic operation.
Pd-catalyzed allylic C-H trifluoroacetoxylation of substituted alkenes was performed using PhI(OCOCF3)(2) as the oxidant and acyloxy source. Trifluoroacetoxylation of monosubstituted cyclopentenes and cyclohexenes proceeds with excellent regio- and diastereoselectivity. Studies with one of the possible (eta(3)-allyl)Pd(II) intermediates suggest that the reaction proceeds via stereoselective formation of Pd(IV) intermediates and subsequent stereo- and regioselective reductive elimination of the product.
Allylboronic acids readily react with a broad variety of ketones, affording homoallylic alcohols with adjacent quaternary and tertiary stereocenters. The reaction proceeds with very high anti stereoselectivity even if the substituents of the keto group have a similar size. a-Keto acids react with syn stereoselectivity probably due to the formation of acyl boronate intermediates. The allylation reactions proceed without added acids/bases under mild conditions. Because of this, many functionalities are tolerated even with in situ generated allylboronic acids.
Allylboration of ketones with gamma-disubstituted allylboronic acids is performed in the presence of chiral BINOL derivatives. The reaction is suitable for single-step creation of adjacent quaternary stereocenters with high selectivity. We show that, with an appropriate choice of the chiral catalyst and the stereoisomeric prenyl substrate, full control of the stereo- and enantioselectivity is possible in the reaction.
Palladium pincer complexes directly catalyze the redox coupling reactions of functionalized alkenes and iodonium salts. The catalytic process, which is suitable for mild catalytic functionalization of allylic acetates and electron-rich alkenes, probably occurs through Pd(IV) intermediates. Due to the strong metal−ligand interactions, the oxidation of phosphine and amine ligands of the pincer complexes can be avoided in the presented reactions.
Various methoxy substituted pincer-complexes were prepared in order to study the substituent effects on the catalytic activity in palladium catalyzed opening of vinyl epoxides and boronation of cinnamyl alcohol. The results clearly show that methoxy substitution at the para-position of the pincer-complex leads to up to fourfold acceleration of the catalytic reactions, while substitution of the side-arms does not change the activity of the complex or leads to a slight deceleration of the catalytic processes.
New easily accessible 1,1'-bi-2-naphthol- (BINOL-) and biphenanthrol-based chiral pincer complex catalysts were prepared for selective (up to 85% enantiomeric excess) allylation of sulfonimines. The chiral pincer complexes were prepared by a flexible modular approach allowing an efficient tuning of the selectivity of the catalysts. By employment of the different enantiomeric forms of the catalysts, both enantiomers of the homoallylic amines could be selectively obtained. Both allyl stannanes and allyl trifluoroborates can be employed as allyl sources in the reactions. The biphenanthrol-based complexes gave higher selectivity than the substituted BINOL-based analogues, probably because of the well-shaped chiral pocket generated by employment of the biphenanthrol complexes. The enantioselective allylation of sulfonimines presented in this study has important implications for the mechanism given for the pincer complex-catalyzed allylation reactions, confirming that this process takes place without involvement of palladium(0) species.
Palladium catalyzed cross-coupling of allylboronic acids with a-diazoketones was studied. The reaction selectively affords the linear allylic product. The reaction proceeds with formation of a new C(sp(3))-C(sp(3)) bond. The reaction was performed without an external oxidant, likely without the Pd-catalyst undergoing redox reactions.
Nucleophilic F-18-fluorination of bromodifluoromethyl derivatives was performed using [F-18] Bu4NF in the presence of DBU(1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene). This novel procedure provided a diverse set of [F-18] trifluoroacetamides in good to excellent radiochemical conversions. A mechanism where DBU acts as organomediator in this transformation is proposed.
The nucleophilic fluorination of bromodifluoromethyl derivatives mediated by the complex (PPh3)(3)CuF is described. Under the reaction conditions, different trifluoroacetates, trifluorolcetones, trifluoroarenes and trifluoroacetamides were obtained in good yields.
Togni's benziodoxole-based reagents are widely used in trifluoromethylation reactions. It has been established that the kinetically stable hypervalent iodine form (I-CF3) of the reagents is thermodynamically less stable than its acyclic ether isomer (O-CF3). On the other hand, the trifluoromethylthio analogue exists in the thermodynamically stable thioperoxide form (O-SCF3), and the hypervalent form (I-SCF3) has been elusive. Despite the importance of these reagents, very little is known about the reaction mechanisms of their syntheses, which has hampered the development of new reagents of the same family. Herein, we use density functional theory calculations to understand the reasons for the divergent behaviors between the CF3 and SCF3 reagents. We demonstrate that they follow different mechanisms of formation and that the metals involved in the syntheses (potassium in the case of the trifluoromethyl reagent and silver in the trifluoromethylthio analogue) play key roles in the mechanisms and greatly influence the possibility of their rearrangements from the hypervalent (I-CF3, I-SCF3) to the corresponding ether-type form (O-CF3, O-SCF3).
Geminal 18F-oxyfluorination of diazoketones was performed in the presence of rhodium mediators. The reactions were performed using a hypervalent iodine-based [18F]fluoro-benziodoxole reagent. By this methodology various α-[18F]fluoro ethers were obtained in high radiochemical yield (up to 98%) and molar activity (216 GBq μmol-1).
Operationally simple radiosynthesis and purification of [F-18]fluoro-benziodoxole was developed starting from a cyclotron produced [F-18]F- precursor, [F-18]TBAF, and tosyl-benziodoxole. The synthetic utility of [F-18]fluoro-benziodoxole was demonstrated by electrophilic fluorocyclization of o-styrilamides proceeding with high RCC (typically 50-90%) and high molar activity (up to 396 GBq mol(-1)).
Allylboronic acids directly react with acyl hydrazones, affording homoallylic amine derivatives. The reaction proceeds with very high syn selectivity, which is the opposite of the stereochemistry observed for allylboration of imines. The reaction can be carried out with both aromatic and aliphatic acyl hydrazones. Based on our studies the excellent syn stereochemistry can be explained by chelation control of the acyl hydrazone and the B(OH)(2) moiety.
Copper-catalyzed cross-coupling of substituted allylboronic acids with alpha-diazoketones was studied. This allylation reaction is highly regioselective, providing the branched allylic product. The process involves creation of a new C(sp(3))-C(sp(3)) bond by retaining the keto functional group of the alpha-diazoketone precursor.
We have developed a new three-component catalytic coupling reaction of alkynyl boronates, diazomethanes, and aliphatic/aromatic ketones in the presence of BINOL derivatives. The reaction proceeds with a remarkably high enantio- and diastereoselectivity (up to three contiguous stereocenters) affording tertiary CF3-allenols in a single operational step. The reaction proceeds under mild, neutral, metal-free conditions, which leads to a high level of functional group tolerance.
Palladium catalyzed allylic C-H functionalization was performed using exocyclic alkene substrates. Multi-component synthesis of stereodefined homoallylic alcohols could be performed using a reaction sequence involving allylic C-H borylation and allylation of aldehydes.
Allylboronates undergo C-H allylation of unsubstituted or monosubstituted benzoquinone and naphthoquinone substrates. In the case of 2,5- or 2,6-disubstituted quinones addition involving the substituted carbon takes place. Allylation with stereodefined allylboronates occurs with retention of the configuration.
In this Perspective we will highlight the most important recent breakthroughs in selective allylboron chemistry (both the synthesis and application of these species). In addition we will provide an outlook toward the future of this promising subfield of organic synthesis.
A remarkably simple and effective system for the direct conversion of allylic alcohols into high value allylic boronic esters using commercially available reagents and catalysts is described.
Density functional theory calculations have been performed to investigate the binaphthol-catalyzed allylboration of skatoles. The high stereoselectivity observed for the reaction is reproduced well by the calculations and was found to be mainly a result of steric repulsions in the corresponding Zimmerman-Traxler transition states. The role of the additive MeOH in enhancing the stereoselectivity was also investigated and is suggested to promote the formation of less reactive allylboronic ester intermediates, thereby suppressing the formation of allylboroxine species, which undergo the facile racemic background reaction.
The application of an air- and moisture-stable fluoroiodane reagent was investigated in the palladium-catalyzed iodofluorination reaction of alkenes. Both the iodo and fluoro substituents arise from the fluoroiodane reagent. In the case of certain palladium catalysts, the alkene substrates undergo allylic rearrangement prior to the iodofluorination process. The reaction is faster for electron-rich alkenes than for electron-deficient ones.
A new method is presented for 1,3-difluorination and 1,3-oxyfluorination reactions. The process is based on iodonium mediated opening of 1,1-disubstituted cyclopropanes. The reaction proceeds with high chemo- and regioselectivity under mild reaction conditions typically at room temperature in a couple of hours. The reaction probably occurs via electrophilic ring-opening of cyclopropanes.
Styrenes with an electron-deficient double bond undergo cyanotrifluoromethylation with a trifluoromethylated hypervalent iodine reagent in the presence of CuCN. The reaction proceeds under mild conditions in the presence of bulky phosphines or B(2)pin(2) additives. The process is highly regioselective and involves the consecutive formation of two C-C bonds in a single addition reaction. In the presence of a p-methoxy substituent in the styrene, oxytrifluoromethylation occurs instead of the cyanotrifluoromethylation.
Quinones undergo copper-mediated C-H trifluoromethylation reactions using a hypervalent iodine reagent. The reactions have a broad synthetic scope involving naphtho, alkyl, chloro and methoxy quinones.
alpha,alpha'-Disubstituted styrenes undergo a difluorination-rearrangement reaction with fluoro-benzoiodoxole reagent 1. The reaction is catalyzed by Pd(MeCN)(4)(BF4)(2) and Cu(MeCN)(4)PF6. We have studied the rearrangement of alpha,alpha'-diaryl substituted styrenes, in which the aryl groups have different electronic character. In the case of a aryl, alpha'-alkyl substituted styrenes, the aryl substituent has a higher migratory aptitude than the alkyl group. We have also extended the reactions to cycloalkyl styrenes, which underwent interesting ring contraction/expansion reactions. The regioselectivity of the migration can be explained on the basis of the formation of a phenonium intermediate.
An air-and moisture-stable fluoroiodane in the presence of AgBF4 is suitable for selective geminal difluorination of styrenes under mild reaction conditions. One of the C-F bonds is formed by transfer of electrophilic fluorine from the hypervalent iodine reagent, while the other one arises from the tetrafluoroborate counterion of silver. Deuterium-isotope-labelling experiments and rearrangement of methyl styrene substrates suggest that the reaction proceeds through a phenonium ion intermediate.
Regio- and stereoselective Cu-catalyzed addition of the above hypervalent iodine reagent to alkynes and alkenes was achieved. In the presence of Cul, the reaction is suitable to perform trifluoromethyl-benzoyloxylation and trifluoromethyl-halogenation of alkenes and alkynes. Electron-donating substituents accelerate the process, and alkenes react faster than alkynes emphasizing the electrophilic character of the addition reaction.
The copper-catalyzed oxytrifluoromethylation of phenylacetylenes and C-H trifluoromethylation of quinones were studied. It was found that both reactions are accelerated by B(2)pin(2) and PCy3 additives. The two reactions have different substituent effects. The oxytrifluoromethylation is faster in the presence of electron-donating groups, while the C-H trifluoromethylation is faster with electron-withdrawing substituents. The Hammett plot for oxytrifluoromethylation gave a rho value of 0.76 indicating electron demand in the rate determining step of the reaction. According to the absolute value of rho the reaction probably does not proceed through a rate determining formation of a carbocation intermediate. The kinetic isotope effect measurements indicate that in C-H trifluoromethylation of quinones the cleavage of the C-H bond is not the rate determining step of the reaction.
A broad range of aliphatic, aromatic, and heterocyclic boronic acids were successfully homologated using trifluorodiazoethane in the presence of BINOL derivatives to provide the corresponding chiral trifluoromethyl containing boronic acid derivatives in high yields and excellent enantioselectivity. The in situ conversion of the chiral transient boronic acids to the corresponding alcohols or β-CF3 carboxylates are also demonstrated.
This study reports a new application area of difluoro enol silyl ethers, which can be easily obtained from trifluoromethyl ketones. The main focus has been directed to the electrophilic fluoroalkylation and arylation methods. The trifluoromethylthiolation of difluoro enol silyl ethers can be used for the construction of a novel trifluoromethylthio-alpha, alpha-difluoroketone (-COCF2SCF3) functionality. The -CF2SCF3 moiety has interesting properties due to the electron-withdrawing, albeit lipophilic, character of the SCF3 group, which can be combined with the high electrophilicity of the difluoroketone motif. The methodology could also be extended to difluoro homologation of the trifluoromethyl ketones using the Togni reagent. In addition, we presented a method for transition-metal-free arylation of difluoro enol silyl ethers based on hypervalent iodines.
A new asymmetric catalytic propargyl- and allylboration of hydrazonoesters is reported. The reactions utilize allenyl- and allylboronic acids in the presence of the inexpensive parent BINOL catalyst. The reactions can be performed under mild conditions (0 degrees C) without any metal catalyst or other additives affording sterically encumbered chiral -amino acids. This is the first metal-free method for the asymmetric propargyl- and allylboration of hydrazonoesters.
Chiral α-substituted allylboronic acids were synthesized by asymmetric homologation of alkenylboronic acids using CF3/TMS-diazomethanes in the presence of BINOL catalyst and ethanol. The chiral α-substituted allylboronic acids were reacted with aldehydes or oxidized to alcohols in situ with a high degree of chirality transfer. The oxygen-sensitive allylboronic acids can be purified via their isolated diaminonaphthalene (DanH)-protected derivatives. The highly reactive purified allylboronic acids reacted in a self-catalyzed reaction at room temperature with ketones, imines, and indoles to give congested trifluoromethylated homoallylic alcohols/amines with up to three contiguous stereocenters.
Copper-mediated trifluoromethylation of allylic chlorides and trifluoroacetates was performed using a convenient Cu-CF3 reagent. The reaction is suitable for selective synthesis of allyl trifluoromethyl species. Mechanistic studies indicate that the reaction proceeds via a nucleophilic substitution mechanism involving allyl copper intermediates. The analogous Cu-F reagent was suitable for fluorination of allyl chlorides. Stereodefined cyclic substrates reacted regio- and stereoselectively.
Palladium-catalyzed allylic C−H silylation was performed with use of hexamethyldisilane as the silyl source. These C−H functionalization reactions occur only in the presence of hypervalent iodine reagents or other strong oxidants and proceed with excellent regioselectivity, providing the linear allylic isomer of the allylsilane products. In demonstrating the first oxidative allylic C−H silylation of alkenes, this study marks an important advance for the catalytic C−H functionalization method.
A new Zn-mediated trifluoromethylthiolation-based bifunctionalization reaction is developed. In this process, simultaneous C-SCF3 and C-C bond formation takes place in a multicomponent reaction, in which an aryl and a SCF3 group arise from different reagents. Our studies show that the reaction mechanism is similar to the Hooz multicomponent coupling. The process involves in situ generation of BAr3, which reacts with a diazocarbonyl compound, and the reaction is terminated by an electrophilic SCF3 transfer. The reaction can also be extended to fluorination based bifunctionalization which proceeds with somewhat lower yield than the analogous trifluoromethylthiolation reaction.
A new Rh-catalyzed, three-component reaction for the oxytrifluoromethylthiolation of alpha-diazoketones was developed. The SCF3 functionality was introduced using a stable dibenzenesulfonimide reagent under mild conditions. Alcohols, acetals, and ethers were used as the alkoxy sources. Cyclic ethers underwent a trifunctionalization reaction through the introduction of SCF3, OR, and N(SO2Ph)(2) substituents in a single step.
Density functional theory calculations were performed to study the detailed reaction mechanisms of rhodium-catalyzed oxyaminofluorination and oxyaminotrifluoromethylthiolation of diazocarbonyl compounds with electrophilic N-F and N-SCF3-based reagents. The calculations show that the operating mechanisms for the two reactions are identical. The catalytic cycle starts with N-2 dissociation to provide a rhodium-carbene intermediate, followed by nucleophilic attack of tetrahydrofuran on the carbene and a rhodium coordination change generating a rhodium-enolate intermediate. Subsequent electrophilic attack introduces the fluorine or the SCF3 moiety, and it is followed by nucleophilic attack of the remaining amino group to yield the final product.
The reaction mechanisms of rhodium-catalyzed geminal oxyfluorination and oxytrifluoromethylation of diazo-carbonyl compounds with fluoro-benziodoxole and Togni reagents are investigated by means of density functional theory calculations. It is shown that the two reactions follow very similar mechanisms, involving N-2 dissociation to form a Rh-carbene intermediate, alcohol insertion and proton transfer resulting in a stable Rh-enol intermediate, and concerted proton transfer/electrophilic addition of the hypervalent iodine reagent to the enol. Isomerization of the hypervalent iodine takes then place before a ligand coupling affords the final product. The role of the dirhodium catalyst in facilitating the various steps of the reaction is discussed. The presented mechanisms are consistent with available experimental information, and the obtained insights allow for extension to other reactions involving hypervalent iodine reagents.
An efficient methodology for the synthesis of vinyl-, allyl-, and (E)-2-boryl allylboronates from propargylic alcohols via Cu-catalyzed borylation under mild conditions is reported. In the presence of commercially available Cu(OAc)(2) or Cu(acac)(2) and Xantphos, the reaction affords the desired products in up to 92% yield with a broad substrate scope (43 examples). Isolation of an allenyl boronate as the reaction intermediate suggests that an insertion elimination-type reaction, followed by borylcupration, is involved in the borylation of propargylic alcohols.
This communication describes an efficient palladium pincer complex-catalyzed allylic C-H borylation of alkenes. The transformation exhibits high regio- and stereo selectivity with a variety of linear alkenes. A synthetically useful feature of this allylic C-H borylation method is that all allyl-Bpin products can be isolated in usually high yields. Preliminary mechanistic studies indicate that this CH borylation reaction proceeds via Pd(IV) pincer complex intermediates.