stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) imaging technique based on spatial modulation of the pump beam has been used to study gases. The SRS gain signal was separated from the Stokes beam background in the spatial frequency domain. The SRS signal shows linear behaviour with the gas pressure at a range from 1.0 to 8.0 bars. The signal is linearly proportional to the pump beam intensity while it is enhanced with increasing the Stokes beam intensity to a certain limit than it saturates. Further, the chemical specificity of the technique has been investigated. Two sharp peaks with line width at half maximum of about 0.30 nm have been obtained at Stokes beam wavelengths of 629.93 nm and 634.05 nm corresponding to the methane and ethylene gases, respectively. The results show that SRS imaging is a promising technique to provide chemical specificity as well as spatial and temporal information of gaseous species
In this paper, pulsed digital holographic detection is coupled to the stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) process for imaging gases. A Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (532 nm) has been used to pump methane gas (CH4) at pressures up to 12 bars. The frequency-tripled (355 nm) beam from the same laser was used to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The Stokes beam (from the OPO) has been tuned to 629.93 nm so that the frequency difference between the pump (532 nm) and the Stokes beams fits a Raman active vibrational mode of the methane molecule (2922 cm(-1)). The pump beam has been spatially modulated with fringes produced in a Michelson interferometer. The pump and the Stokes beams were overlapped in time, space, and polarization on the gas molecules, resulting in a stimulated Raman gain of the Stokes beam and a corresponding loss of the pump beam through the SRS process. The resulting gain of the Stokes beam has been detected using pulsed digital holography by blending it with a reference beam on the detector. Two holograms of the Stokes beam, without and with the pump beam fringes present, were recorded. Intensity maps calculated from the recorded digital holograms showed amplification of the Stokes beam at the position of overlap with the pump beam fringes and the gas molecules. The gain of the Stokes beam has been separated from the background in the Fourier domain. A gain of about 4.5% at a pump beam average intensity of 4 MW/cm(2) and a Stokes beam intensity of 0.16 MW/cm(2) have been recorded at a gas pressure of 12 bars. The gain decreased linearly with decreasing gas pressure. The results show that SRS holography is a promising technique to pinpoint a specific species and record its spatial and temporal distribution
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to study the effect of the laser spot diameter on the shock wave generated in the ablation process of an Nd:YAG laser pulse on a Zn target under atmospheric pressure. For different laser spot diameters and time delays, the propagation of the expanding vapour and of the shock wave were recorded by intensity maps calculated using the recorded digital holograms. From the latter phase maps, the refractive index and the density field can be derived. A model was developed that approaches the density distribution, in particular the ellipsoidal expansion characteristics. The induced shock wave has an ellipsoid shape that approaches a sphere for decreasing spot diameter. The ellipsoidal shock waves have almost the same centre offset towards the laser beam and the same aspect ratio for different time steps. The model facilitates the derivation of the particle velocity field. The method provides valuable quantitative results that are discussed, in particular in comparison with the simpler point source explosion theory.
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to compare the laser ablation process of a Q-switched Nd-YAG laser pulse (wavelength 1064 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) on two different metals (Zn and Ti) under atmospheric air pressure. Digital holograms were recorded for different time delays using collimated laser light (532 nm) passed through the volume along the target. Numerical data of the integrated refractive index field were calculated and presented as phase maps. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and are used to calculate the attenuation of the probing laser beam by the ablated plume. The different structures of the plume, namely streaks normal to the surface for Zn in contrast to absorbing regions for Ti, indicates that different mechanisms of laser ablation could happen for different metals for the same laser settings and surrounding gas. At a laser fluence of 5 J/cm2, phase explosion appears to be the ablation mechanism in case of Zn, while for Ti normal vaporisation seems to be the dominant mechanism.
Spectroscopic holography refers to techniques in which the detected hologram contains information about specific species in the medium under study. In general, at least two lasers are required with wavelengths chosen carefully to fit the interaction process utilized. In this process, energy from the shorter wavelength laser beam is transferred to the longer wavelength coherently through the process of stimulated emission. Two interaction mechanisms are considered; Stimulated Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) and Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), which both are species specific with the ability of coherent interaction. In this paper, the fundamental properties of spectroscopic holography is presented and demonstrated with a few idealized experiments. These validation experiments are performed in a gas chamber in which different gases may be blended and the gas pressure changed between 1-12 bars. In addition, two examples of applications are presented. In the first set of experiments, LIF holography is used to image light absorption and laser heating in a dye simultaneously. The second set of experiments is performed in a ow of methane gas. It is demonstrated that the combination of holographic phase measurements and SRS gain images may be used for calibration. This calibration may further be used to measure absolute concentration in a burning flame.
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to investigate the plume and the shock wave generated in the ablation process of a Q-switched Nd-YAG (λ=1064 nm and pulse duration=12 ns) laser pulse on a polycrystalline boron nitride (PCBN) target under atmospheric air pressure. A special setup based on two synchronised wavelengths from the same laser for simultaneous processing and measurement has been used. Digital holograms were recorded for different time delays using collimated laser light (λ=532 nm) passed through the volume along the target. Numerical data of the integrated refractive index field were calculated and presented as phase maps showing the propagation of the shock wave and the plume generated by the process. Radon inversion has been used to estimate the 3D refractive index fields measured from the projections assuming rotational symmetry. The shock wave density has been calculated using the point explosion model and the shock wave condition equation and its behaviour with time at different power densities ranging from 1.4 to 9.1 GW/cm2 is presented. Shock front densities have been calculated from the reconstructed refractive index fields using the Gladstone-Dale equation. A comparison of the shock front density calculated from the reconstructed data and that calculated using the point explosion model at different time delays has been done. The comparison shows quite good agreement between the model and the experimental data. Finally the reconstructed refractive index field has been used to estimate the electron number density distribution within the laser-induced plasma. The electron number density behaviour with distance from the target at different power densities and its behaviour with time are shown. The electron number densities are found to be in the order of 1018 cm-3 and decay at a rate of 3×1015 electrons/cm3 ns.
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to study the shock wave induced by a Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (λ = 1064 nm and pulse duration 12 ns) on a polycrystalline boron nitride (PCBN) ceramic target under atmospheric air pressure. A special setup based on using two synchronized wavelengths from the same laser for processing and measurement simultaneously has been introduced. Collimated laser light (λ = 532 nm) passed through the volume along the target and digital holograms were recorded for different time delays after processing starts. Numerical data of the integrated refractive index field were calculated and presented as phase maps showing the propagation of the shock wave generated by the process. The location of the induced shock wave front was observed for different focusing and time delays. The amount of released energy, i.e. the part of the incident energy of the laser pulse that is eventually converted to a shock wave has been estimated using the point explosion model. The released energy is normalized by the incident laser pulse energy and the energy conversion efficiency between the laser pulse and PCBN target has been calculated at different power densities. The results show that the energy conversion efficiency seems to be constant around 80% at high power densities.
The stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) process is sensitive to the relation between the polarization direction of the two laser beams (the pump and the Stokes) that generate it. In this paper, we made use of the polarization sensitivity of the SRS process and used polarization-resolved pulsed digital holography to record the signal from one single-shot hologram. The pump beam polarization was kept vertical, while the Stokes beam polarization was 45 deg. The two polarization components of the Stokes beam were recorded in a single hologram by blending the Stokes beam with two reference beams with orthogonal polarization on the detector. The two components of the Stokes beam were separated in the Fourier domain, and the corresponding intensity maps were calculated. The vertically polarized component of the Stokes beam was amplified due to the SRS process, while the horizontal component experienced no gain. The difference between the vertically and horizontally polarized intensity maps, respectively, was calculated and Fourier transformed to separate the gain signal in the spatial frequency domain. The method was demonstrated on methane (CH4) gas at a pressure of 12 bars. Results show that SRS polarization holography is a promising technique for recording the SRS signal from one single-shot hologram for time-resolved monitoring of specific species.
In this paper pulsed digital holographic detection is coupled to the stimulated laser induced fluorescence (LIF) effect for imaging fluorescent species. A frequency tripled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 355 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) has been used to pump Coumarin 153 dye solved in ethanol. Simultaneously a frequency doubled pulse (532 nm) from the same laser is used to probe the solvent resulting in a gain through stimulated emission. The resulting gain of the probe beam is recorded using digital holography by blending it with a reference beam on the detector. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and used to calculate the gain of the probe beam due to stimulated fluorescence emission which is coupled to the concentration of the dye. The results show that the amplification of the probe beam (532 nm) due to stimulated LIF emission is seen in the intensity maps. The gain is about 40% at a dye concentration of 0.32 g/L and decreases to be about 20% at a dye concentration of 0.04 g/L for a probe beam energy density of 0.1 mJ/cm2. Spectroscopic measurements have been carried out to confirm the holographic results. The results show that stimulated LIF holography is a promising technique for quantitative imaging of fluorescent species.
The stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) signal in diffuse light has been recorded using an optical imaging technique based on spatial modulation. A frequency doubled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 532 nm) has been used to pump a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) cylinder. The frequency tripled (355 nm) beam from the same laser is used to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The Stokes beam (from the OPO) has been tuned to 631.27 nm so that the frequency difference between the pump and the Stokes beams fits a Raman active vibrational mode of the PMMA molecule (2956 cm-1). The two laser beams were overlapped in time and space on a PMMA cylinder resulting in a gain of the Stokes beam through the SRS process of about 4.0 %. For separating the SRS signal, the pump beam was spatially modulated with fringes produced in a Michelson interferometer. The gain of the Stokes beam due to SRS was separated from the Stokes beam background in the Fourier domain. The intensity image has been calculated from an inverse Fourier transform of the separated gain signal. The intensity image shows a gain of the Stokes beam at the area of overlap between the pump beam fringes and the Stokes beam compared to the undisturbed surrounding. The results show that spatial modulation of the pump beam is a promising method to separate the weak SRS signal from the Stokes beam background. This technique can be applied to pin-point specific species and record its spatial and temporal distribution
In this paper, stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) signals have been recorded by an optical imaging technique that is based on spatial modulation. A frequency doubled Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) was used to pump a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) target. The frequency tripled (355 nm) beam from the same laser was used to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The Stokes beam (from the OPO) was tuned to 631.27 nm so that the frequency difference between the pump and the Stokes beams fit the Raman active vibrational mode of the PMMA molecule (2956 cm(-1)). The pump beam has been spatially modulated with fringes produced in a Michelson interferometer. The pump and the Stokes beams were overlapped on the target resulting in a gain of the Stokes beam of roughly 2.5% and a corresponding loss of the pump beam through the SRS process. To demodulate the SRS signal, two images of the Stokes beam without and with the pump beam fringes present were recorded. The difference between these two images was calculated and Fourier transformed. Then, the gain of the Stokes beam was separated from the background in the Fourier domain. The results show that spatial modulation of the pump beam is a promising method to separate the weak SRS signal from the background.
A frequency tripled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 355 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) has been used to pump Coumarin 153 dye solved in ethanol. Simultaneously, a frequency doubled pulse (532 nm) from the same laser is used to probe the solvent perpendicularly resulting in a gain through stimulated laser induced fluorescence (LIF) emission. The resulting gain of the probe beam is recorded using digital holography by blending it with a reference beam on the detector. Two digital holograms without and with the pump beam were recorded. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and used to calculate the gain of the probe beam due to the stimulated LIF. In addition numerical data of the local temperature rise was calculated from the corresponding phase maps using Radon inversion. It was concluded that about 15% of the pump beam energy is transferred to the dye solution as heat while the rest is consumed in the radiative process. The results show that pulsed digital holography is a promising technique for quantitative study of fluorescent species
A frequency tripled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 355 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) has been used to pump Coumarin 153 dye solved in ethanol. The laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectrum has been recorded using a spectrometer at different dye concentrations. The frequency doubled 532 nm beam from the same laser is used as a probe beam to pass through the excited volume of the dye. Because of stimulated emission an increase of the probe (532 nm) beam energy is recorded and a reduction of the spontaneous fluorescence spectrum intensity is observed. A model was developed that approaches the trend of the gain as a function of the probe beam energy at low dye concentrations (less than 0.08 g/L). The stimulated LIF is further recorded using digital holography. Digital holograms were recorded for different dye concentrations using collimated laser light (532 nm) passed through the dye volume. Two holograms without and with the UV laser beam were recorded. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and are used to calculate the gain of the green laser beam due to the stimulated fluorescence emission which is coupled to the dye concentration. The gain of the coherent 532 nm beam is seen in the intensity maps and its value is about 40% for a dye concentration of 0.32 g/L and decreases with the decrease of the dye concentration. The results show that pulsed digital holography can be coupled to the stimulated LIF effect for imaging fluorescent species
Digital speckle photography combined with TV shearography is developed for precise measurement of the magnitude of the shear field in a linear shear configuration. As an application the method is implemented to determine the slope-change variations of a three-dimensional object with TV shearography in which the shear magnitude is obtained with the digital speckle photography technique
The compensation of large in-plane motions in digital speckle-pattern interferometry (DSPI) with the use of digital speckle photography (DSP) is demonstrated. Ordinary recordings of DSPI are recombined and analyzed with DSP. The DSP result is used to compensate for the bulk speckle motion prior to calculation of the phase map. This results in a high fringe contrast even for deformations of several speckle diameters. In addition, for the case of an in-plane deformation, it is shown that the absolute phase change in each pixel may be unwrapped by use of the DSP result as an initial guess. The principles of this method and experiments showing the in-plane rotation of a plate and the encounter of two rounded plates are presented
The compensation of large in-plane motions in digital speckle-pattern interferometry (DSPI) with the use of digital speckle photography (DSP) is demonstrated. Ordinary recordings of DSPI are recombined and analyzed with DSP. The DSP result is used to compensate for the bulk speckle motion prior to calculation of the phase map. This results in a high fringe contrast even for deformations of several speckle diameters. In addition, for the case of an in-plane deformation, it is shown that the absolute phase change in each pixel may be unwrapped by use of the DSP result as an initial guess. The principles of this method and experiments showing the in-plane rotation of a plate and the encounter of two rounded plates are presented.
Snow is a heterogenous, hot material which is constituted from ice particles. The bonding behavior of ice particles is an important parameter determining the macroscopic behavior of snow. Discrete Element Method (DEM) is usually used as a tool to model dry snow. The most important input data required into the DEM is bonding behavior of ice particles since ice particles can adhere to form bonds when they brought into contact. This study had two aims: first, an analytical formulation was derived to predict the bond diameter of ice-ice contacts as a function of time, compressive load, and strain rate. Using the previously published data for strain rate of ice, a solution method was developed. The results of bond diameter development with time were compared to experimental data and a good agreement was found. Second, a DEM for dry snow was developed and programmed in MATLAB and the developed bond model was employed in the simulation to study the deposition behavior of snow in a container under gravity acceleration. A specific beam element with implemented damage model was developed in implemented in the simulation using the bond data obtained from the analytical approach. The simulated parameters were macroscopic angle of repose, packing density, and surface conditions as a function of temperature and filling rate. The results showed that discrete element simulations were able to verify the existing published experimental data. Specifically, the simulation results showed that angle of repose of snow decreased rapidly with decreasing the temperature, the surface became very irregular due to the particles rotation and re-arrangement for lower falling speeds of particles, and density increased with depth of deposition. These findings were all matched with experimental observations.
Despite the significance of snow in various cryospheric, polar, and construction contexts, more comprehensive studies are required on its mechanical properties. In recent years, the utilization of μ CT has yielded valuable insights into snow analysis. Our objective is to establish a methodology for mapping density-dependent material properties for dry manufactured snow within the density range of 400–600 kg/m 3 utilizing μ CT imaging and step-wise, quasi-static, mechanical loading. We also aim to investigate the variations in the structural parameters of snow during loading. The three-dimensional (3D) structure of snow is captured using μ CT with 801 projections at the beginning of the experiments and at the end of each loading step. The sample is compressed at a temperature of − 18 o C using a constant rate of deformation (0.2 mm/min) in multiple steps. The relative density of the snow is determined at each load step using binary image segmentation. It varies from 0.44 in the beginning to nearly 0.65 at the end of the loading, which corresponds to a density range of 400–600 kg/m 3 . The estimated modulus and viscosity terms, obtained from the Burger’s model, show an increasing trend with density. The values of the Maxwell and Kelvin–Voigt moduli were found to range from 60 to 320 MPa and from 6 to 40 MPa, respectively. Meanwhile, the viscosity values for the Maxwell and Kelvin–Voigt models varied from 0.4 to 3.5 GPa-s, and 0.3–3.2 GPa-s, respectively, within the considered density range. In addition, Digital Volume Correlation (DVC) was used to calculate the full-field strain distribution in the specimen at each load step. The image analysis results show that, the particle size and specific surface area (SSA) do not change significantly within the studied range of loading and densities, while the sphericity of the particles is increased. The grain diameter ranges from approximately 100 μ m to nearly 400 μ m, with a mode of nearly 200 μ m. The methodology presented in this study opens up a path for an extensive statistical analysis of the material properties by experimenting more snow samples.
We experimentally demonstrate the presence of a capillary bridge in the contact between an ice particle and a smooth aluminum surface at a relative humidity of approximately 50% and temperatures below the melting point. We conduct the experiments in a freezer with a controlled temperature and consider the mechanical instability of the bridge upon separation of the ice particle from the aluminum surface at a constant speed. We observe that a liquid bridge forms, and this formation becomes more pronounced as the temperature approaches the melting point. We also show that the separation distance is proportional to the cube root of the volume of the bridge. We hypothesize that the volume of the liquid bridge can be used to provide a rough estimate of the thickness of the liquid layer on the ice particle since in the absence of other driving mechanisms, some of the liquid on the surface must have been pulled to the bridge area. We show that the estimated value lies within the range previously reported in the literature. With these assumptions, the estimated thickness of the liquid layer decreases from nearly 56 nm at T = −1.7°C to 0.2 nm at T = −12.7°C. The dependence can be approximated with a power law, proportional to (TM − T)−β, where β < 2.6 and TM is the melting temperature. We further observe that for a rough surface, the capillary bridge formation in the considered experimental conditions vanishes.
We present experiments along with an approximate, semi-analytic, close-form solution to predict ice sintering force as a function of temperature, contact load, contact duration, and particle size during the primary stage of sintering. The ice sintering force increases nearly linear with increasing contact load but nonlinear with both contact duration and particle size in the form of a power law. The exponent of the power law for size dependence is around the value predicted by general sintering theory. The temperature dependence of the sintering force is also nonlinear and follows the Arrhenius equation. At temperatures closer to the melting point, a liquid bridge is observed upon the separation of the contacted ice particles. We also find that the ratio of ultimate tensile strength of ice to the axial stress concentration factor in tension is an important factor in determining the sintering force, and a value of nearly 1.1 MPa can best catch the sintering force of ice in different conditions. We find that the activation energy is around 41.4KJ/mol41.4KJ/mol, which is close to the previously reported data. Also, our results suggest that smaller particles are “stickier” than larger particles. Moreover, during the formation of the ice particles, cavitation and surface cracking is observed which can be one of the sources for the variations observed in the measured ice sintering force.
The mechanical properties of natural snow play a crucial role in understanding glaciers, avalanches, polar regions, and snow-related constructions. Research has concentrated on how the mechanical properties of snow vary, primarily with its density; the integration of cutting-edge techniques like micro-tomography with traditional loading methods can enhance our comprehension of these properties in natural snow. This study employs CT imaging and uniaxial compression tests, along with the Digital Volume Correlation (DVC) to investigate the density-dependent material properties of natural snow. The data from two snow samples, one initially non-compressed (test 1) and the other initially compressed (test 2), were fed into Burger’s viscoelastic model to estimate the material properties. CT imaging with 801 projections captures the three-dimensional structure of the snow initially and after each loading step at -18C, using a constant deformation rate (0.2 mm/min). The relative density of the snow, ranging from 0.175 to 0.39 (equivalent to 160–360 kg/m), is determined at each load step through binary image segmentation. Modulus and viscosity terms, estimated from Burger’s model, exhibit a density-dependent increase. Maxwell and Kelvin–Voigt moduli range from 0.5 to 14 MPa and 0.1 to 0.8 MPa, respectively. Viscosity values for the Maxwell and Kelvin–Voigt models vary from 0.2 to 2.9 GPa-s and 0.2 to 2.3 GPa-s within the considered density range, showing an exponent between 3 and 4 when represented as power functions. Initial grain characteristics for tests 1 and 2, obtained through image segmentation, reveal an average Specific Surface Area (SSA) of around 55 1/mm and 40 1/mm, respectively. The full-field strain distribution in the specimen at each load step is calculated using the DVC, highlighting strong strain localization indicative of non-homogeneous behavior in natural snow. These findings not only contribute to our understanding of natural snow mechanics but also hold implications for applications in fields such as glacier dynamics and avalanche prediction.
We are describing a fully automatic in-line shape inspection system for controlling the shape of moving objects on a conveyor belt. The shapes of the objects are measured using a full-field optical shape measurement method based on photogrammetry. The photogrammetry system consists of four cameras, a flash, and a triggering device. When an object to be measured arrives at a given position relative to the system, the flash and cameras are synchronously triggered to capture images of the moving object. From the captured images a point-cloud representing the measured shape is created. The point-cloud is then aligned to a CAD-model, which defines the nominal shape of the measured object, using a best-fit method and a feature-based alignment method. Deviations between the point-cloud and the CAD-model are computed giving the output of the inspection process. The computational time to create a point-cloud from the captured images is about 30 seconds and the computational time for the comparison with the CAD-model is about ten milliseconds. We report on recent progress with the shape inspection system.
A concept for targetless, computer-aided design (CAD)-based, close-range photogrammetry for online shape inspection is introduced. The shape of an object, which is arbitrarily located on a conveyor belt, is to be measured and compared with its nominal shape as defined by a CAD model. For most manufactured objects, deviations are only measured at a few given comparison points. These deviations can be estimated using local photogrammetry based on a priori geometrical information given by the CAD model and the comparison points. Our method results in faster output with higher precision, because we do not generate a shape representation of the entire measured object using typical photogrammetric methods. Images depicting the object from convergent angles are captured by an array of cameras in a precalibrated network, and the CAD model is matched and aligned, within the projective geometry of the camera network, to the depicted object in the images without the use of targets. An algorithm for solving this virtual projective targetless shape matching problem is presented.
This paper discusses the possibility of evaluating the shape of a free-form object in comparison with its shape prescribed by a CAD model. Measurements are made based on a single-shot recording using dualwavelength holography with a synthetic wavelength of 1.4 mm. Each hologram is numerically propagated to different focus planes and correlated. The result is a vector field of speckle displacements that is linearly dependent on the local distance between the measured surface and the focus plane. From these speckle displacements, a gradient field of the measured surface is extracted through a proportional relationship. The gradient field obtained from the measurement is then aligned to the shape of the CAD model using the iterative closest point (ICP) algorithm and regularization. Deviations between the measured shape and the CAD model are found from the phase difference field, giving a high precision shape evaluation. The phase differences and the CAD model are also used to find a representation of the measured shape. The standard deviation of the measured shape relative the CAD model varies between 7 and 19 μm, depending on the slope.
The aim of this work is to evaluate the shape of a free form object using single shot digital holography. The digital holography results in a gradient field and wrapped phase maps representing the shape of the object. The task is then to find a surface representation from this data which is an inverse problem. To solve this inverse problem we are using regularization with additional shape information from the CAD-model of the measured object.
In automotive industry there is an interest of controlling the shape of a large number of identical components on-line in the manufacturing process. We propose a method to do this by capturing a digital hologram of the object and then using information from its computer aided design (CAD) model to calculate the shape and determine the agreement between the manufactured object and the CAD-model. The holographic recording of the object is done using dual wavelengths with a synthetic wavelength of approximately 400 μm. The optical measurement results in a wrapped phase map with the phase values in the interval [−π, π]. Each phase interval represents a depth distance on the object of about 0.2 mm. The phase unwrapping is done iteratively using information from the CADmodel. This implies that it is possible to measure large discontinuities on the surface of the measured object. The method also gives a point-to-point correspondence between the measurement and the CAD-model which is vital for tolerance control.
We describe a method to verify the shape of manufactured objects by using their design model. A non-contact measuring method that consists of a stereo-camera system and a single projected fringe pattern is used. The method acquires one image from each camera. Additional shape information from the design model is also used. This surface-measurement method gives an accuracy of about 45 µm. Deviations from the design model within ±1.6 mm can be correctly detected. The measured surface representation is matched to the design model using the ICP-method. Fast performance has been considered adapting the method for on-line use.
A Michelson-type digital speckle photographic system has been proposed in which one light beam produces a Fourier transform and another beam produces an image at a recording plane, without interfering between themselves. Because the optical Fourier transform is insensitive to translation and the imaging technique is insensitive to tilt, the proposed system is able to simultaneously and independently determine both surface tilt and translation by two separate recordings, one before and another after the surface motion, without the need to obtain solutions for simultaneous equations. Experimental results are presented to verify the theoretical analysis.
A novel optical system is proposed that implements digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI) and digital speckle photography (DSP) simultaneously using two wavelength illumination of an object for simultaneous measurement of all three components of the displacement vector field. A collimated red light illuminates both the object and a reference surface in a DSPI configuration which is sensitive to out-of-plane displacement field while a blue light illuminates the object in a DSP configuration which is sensitive to in-plane displacement fields. A color 3-CCD camera records the red and blue lights individually through its red and blue channels, respectively. Two reference images and one image in the deformed state of the object are required for quantitative measurement. Experimental results are presented to validate the system.
X-ray microtomography data of iron ore green pellets of approx. 12 mm in diameter were recorded using a commercial instrument. The reconstructed volume after thresholding represented a unique dataset consisting of a three-dimensional distribution of equiaxed objects corresponding to bubble cavities. This dataset was used to successfully validate a stereological method to determine the size distribution of spherical objects dispersed in a volume. This was achieved by investigating only a few cross-sectional images of this volume and measuring the profiles left by these objects in the cross-sectional images. Excellent agreement was observed between the size distribution of the bubble cavities obtained by directly classifying their size in the reconstructed volume and that estimated by applying the aforementioned stereological method to eight cross-sectional images of the reconstructed volume. Subsequently, we discuss the possibility of calibrating X-ray tomography data quantitatively using the size distribution of the bubble cavities as a figure of merit and the results obtained by applying the stereological method to SEM images as reference data. This was justified by considering the validity of the stereological method demonstrated by tomography, the accurate thresholding made possible by back-scattered electron imaging and the solid reproducibility of the results obtained by SEM. Using different threshold values for binarization of the X-ray microtomography data and comparing the results to those obtained by SEM, we found that X-ray microtomography can be used after proper calibration against SEM data to measure the total porosity of the bubble cavities but can only provide a rough estimate of the median diameter because of the limited resolution achieved in this study.
An investigation of a NIR camera system for road surface classification has been conducted for several road conditions. The surfaces were illuminated with three wavelengths, 980 nm, 1310 nm and 1550 nm and a halogen lamp, to simulate a real environment application with surrounding light. A measuring scheme to deal with surrounding light has been implemented enabling road condition classification from NIR images in a real environment. The retrieved camera images have been analyzed and an RGB representation of the different surfaces has been created to classify the different road conditions. The investigation shows that it is possible to distinguish between dry, moist, wet, frosty, icy and snowy road surfaces using a NIR camera system in a disturbed environment.
Three different configurations utilizing polarized short-wave infrared light to classify winter road conditions have been investigated. In the first configuration, polarized broadband light was detected in the specular and backward directions, and the quotient between the detected intensities was used as the classification parameter. Best results were obtained for the SS-configuration. This sensor was shown to be able to distinguish between the smooth road conditions of water and ice from the diffuse road conditions of snow and dry asphalt with a probability of wrong classification as low as 7%. The second sensor configuration was a pure backward architecture utilizing polarized light with two distinct wavelengths. This configuration was shown to be effective for the important problem of distinguishing water from ice with a probability of wrong classification of only 1.5%. The third configuration was a combination of the two previous ones. This combined sensor utilizing bispectral illumination and bidirectional detection resulted in a probability of wrong classification as low as 2% among all four surfaces.
By measuring the spectral reflection from the four different road conditions dry, wet, icy, and snowy asphalt, a method of classification for the different surfaces -- using two and three wavelengths -- is developed. The method is tested against measurements to ascertain the probability of wrong classification between the surfaces. From the angular spectral response, the fact that asphalt and snow are diffuse reflectors and water and ice are reflective are confirmed.
An investigation of different road conditions has been conducted using a short-wave infrared (SWIR) light online sensor to examine the possibility of estimating road condition parameters such as porosity, depth and roughness. These parameters are essential for non-contact road friction estimation. The investigation show that it is possible to detect changes of depths of water and ice as well as classify different types of ice, by utilising polarised short-wave infrared (SWIR) light and a modified Hapke directional reflectance model
Measuring the road condition in front of a vehicle could prevent accidents and make technologies like electronic stability control (ESP) more efficient. By making three investigations of the classifications of the four road conditions dry asphalt, asphalt covered with water, ice and snow the possibility of a preview sensor is exploited. By measuring the reflectance from the different surfaces with a halogen light and an actual sensor (Road eye) in a laboratory surroundings the advantage and disadvantage are revealed. The sensor is also mounted in a Volvo truck for real-life condition measurements.
The depth-gating capacity of a spatially quasi-incoherent imaging interferometer is investigated in relation to the 3D correlation properties of diffraction field laser speckles. The system exploits a phase-stepped imaging Michelson-type interferometer in which spatially quasi-incoherent illumination is generated by passing an unexpanded laser beam through a rotating diffuser. Numerical simulations and optical experiments both verify that the depth-gating capacity of the imaging interferometer scales as 𝜆/2NA2𝑝λ/2NAp2, where 𝜆λ is the wavelength of the laser and NA𝑝NAp is the numerical aperture of the illumination. For a set depth gate of 150 µm, the depth-gating capacity of the interferometer is demonstrated by scanning a standard USAF target through the measurement volume. The results obtained show that an imaging tool of this kind is expected to provide useful capabilities for imaging through disturbing media and where a single wavelength is required.
An interferometric technique that utilize a spatially quasi-incoherent light source to perform interferometric measurements involving diffusely scattering objects is presented. The proposed technique is demonstrated with settings that give a depth gate of 90 µm.
We described a new concept on a depth-resolved investigation based on imaging interferometry. It exploits a quasi-incoherent imaging interferometry scheme and speckle image correlation techniques. We can spatially resolve a depth-gating capacity of the imaging interferometer with a resolution of around 26 µm.
A simple and inexpensive corrosion sensor has been manufactured to study the corrosion rate of new and water contaminated lubricating grease using a galvanic cell. The galvanic charge is developed between ENIG (electroless nickel immersion gold) and zinc, manufactured by selectively plating on a custom manufactured interdigitated PCB (printed circuit board). This paper shows the methodology in using this concept for any application which may require quantifying the corrosivity of a liquid or semisolid which could be applied to the surface of the sensor. Water contamination is a problem in many grease lubricated machine components, so a sensor concept was developed and a correlation between water content and the corrosion rate is shown. This method could be used to precisely study the corrosion rate of aged or contaminated lubricants and could potentially be used as a cheap and simple way to estimate water contamination of grease. To the knowledge of the authors, this sensor concept has not been used in industry or literature.
Water-contaminated grease samples are investigated with attenuation spectra in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) regions in this article. The purpose of this investigation was to identify a model with optical attenuation spectra such that the water content of grease samples could be characterized with a simple measurement setup using common methodology from the field of instrumental chemistry. The ratio between two chosen wavelengths of light appears to approximate the water content of grease samples with an acceptable coefficient of determination using a methodology to show what can potentially be done to develop condition monitoring tools. To illustrate the outlined method, a prestudy of grease aging and oxidation levels is also investigated to show that other variables do not significantly change the measurement.
Machine maintenance is important for improving machine uptime, reliability, and reducing costs. Grease is used in most rolling element bearings, and one common failure criterion is water contamination, so developing a sensor which can detect water content automatically without human input could be a useful endeavor. The temperature dependence on the dielectric properties of water-contaminated grease is investigated in this paper with computer logged instrumentation. This method has been termed Dielectric Thermoscopy (DT). Several off the shelf (two lithium, one lithium complex, and two calcium sulphonate complex) and one unadditivized lithium grease are tested with varying amounts of water contamination from 0% to approximately 5%. Another grease is tested with small increments of added water from 0% to 0.97% to test the resolution of the measurement. The purpose is to use the capacitance temperature slope (termed dielectric thermoscopy) to show correlations to the water content of the grease sample and investigate if any grease types will pose problems in the measurement. A small, custom made fringe field capacitance sensor with an integrated temperature sensor has been used for this characterization and data is logged automatically with laboratory equipment and a PC. A useable and positive correlation to water content and the DT measurement of roughly 0.5 pF per 10 °C and percentage of water is found, although it was found that some greases have different behavior than others.
The way by which variables such as filler type, filler surface treatment and light source affect light attenuation in particulate filled resin composites was presented. Mixture of 50 wt% bisGMA and 50wt% TEGDMA consisting of a photo-initiatior and a co-initiator was prepared. Three different filler types, HBB, SBB, and KU, which were either silane surface treated or not, were added to that mixture in eight different volume percentage. It was observed that of the two light sources, more light was absorbed by the composite when the laser light was used. It was also observed that the HBB filler absorbed most light and the KU filler the least.
Angularly resolved bidirectional reflectance measurements were modelled by ap- proximating a first order Legendre expanded phase function to retrieve single scattering properties of snow. The measurements from 10 different snow types with known density and specific surface area (SSA) were investigated. A near infrared (NIR) spectrometer was used to measure reflected light above the snow surface over the hemisphere in the wavelength region 900 nm to 1650 nm. A solver based on discrete ordinate radiative transfer (DISORT) model was used to retrieve the estimated Legendre coefficients of the phase function and a cor- relation between the coefficients and physical properties of different snow types is investigated. Results of this study suggest that the first two coefficients of the first order Legendre phase function provide sufficient information about the physical properties of snow where the latter captures the anisotropic behaviour of snow and the former provides a relative estimate of the single scattering albedo of snow. The coefficients of the first order phase function were com- pared with the experimental data and observed that both the coefficients are in good agreement with the experimental data. These findings suggest that our approach can be applied as a qualitative tool to investigate physical properties of snow and also to classify different snow types.
The purpose of this paper is to estimate the scattering phase function of snow from angularly resolved measurements of light intensity in the plane of incidence. A solver is implemented that solves the scattering function for a semi-infinite geometry based on the radiative transfer equation (RTE). Two types of phase functions are considered. The first type is the general phase function based on a low-order series expansion of Legendre polynomials and the other type is the Henyey-Greenstein (HG) phase function. The measurements were performed at a wavelength of 1310 nm and six different snow samples were analysed. It was found that a first order expansion provides sufficient approximation to the measurements. The fit from the first order phase function outperforms that of the HG phase function in terms of accuracy, ease of implementation and computation time. Furthermore, a correlation between the magnitude of the first order component and the age of the snow was found. We believe that these findings may complement present non-contact detection techniques used to determine snow properties.
Welding distortion is an important engineering topic for simulation and modeling, and there is a need for experimental verification of such models by experimental studies. High-speed pulsed digital holography is proposed as a measurement technique for out-of-plane welding distortion. To demonstrate the capability of this technique, measurements from a laser spot weld are presented. A complete twodimensional deformation map with submicrometer accuracy was acquired at a rate of 1000 measurements per second. From this map, particular points of interest can be extracted for analysis of the temporal development of the final distortion geometry.