stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) imaging technique based on spatial modulation of the pump beam has been used to study gases. The SRS gain signal was separated from the Stokes beam background in the spatial frequency domain. The SRS signal shows linear behaviour with the gas pressure at a range from 1.0 to 8.0 bars. The signal is linearly proportional to the pump beam intensity while it is enhanced with increasing the Stokes beam intensity to a certain limit than it saturates. Further, the chemical specificity of the technique has been investigated. Two sharp peaks with line width at half maximum of about 0.30 nm have been obtained at Stokes beam wavelengths of 629.93 nm and 634.05 nm corresponding to the methane and ethylene gases, respectively. The results show that SRS imaging is a promising technique to provide chemical specificity as well as spatial and temporal information of gaseous species
In this paper, pulsed digital holographic detection is coupled to the stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) process for imaging gases. A Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (532 nm) has been used to pump methane gas (CH4) at pressures up to 12 bars. The frequency-tripled (355 nm) beam from the same laser was used to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The Stokes beam (from the OPO) has been tuned to 629.93 nm so that the frequency difference between the pump (532 nm) and the Stokes beams fits a Raman active vibrational mode of the methane molecule (2922 cm(-1)). The pump beam has been spatially modulated with fringes produced in a Michelson interferometer. The pump and the Stokes beams were overlapped in time, space, and polarization on the gas molecules, resulting in a stimulated Raman gain of the Stokes beam and a corresponding loss of the pump beam through the SRS process. The resulting gain of the Stokes beam has been detected using pulsed digital holography by blending it with a reference beam on the detector. Two holograms of the Stokes beam, without and with the pump beam fringes present, were recorded. Intensity maps calculated from the recorded digital holograms showed amplification of the Stokes beam at the position of overlap with the pump beam fringes and the gas molecules. The gain of the Stokes beam has been separated from the background in the Fourier domain. A gain of about 4.5% at a pump beam average intensity of 4 MW/cm(2) and a Stokes beam intensity of 0.16 MW/cm(2) have been recorded at a gas pressure of 12 bars. The gain decreased linearly with decreasing gas pressure. The results show that SRS holography is a promising technique to pinpoint a specific species and record its spatial and temporal distribution
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to study the effect of the laser spot diameter on the shock wave generated in the ablation process of an Nd:YAG laser pulse on a Zn target under atmospheric pressure. For different laser spot diameters and time delays, the propagation of the expanding vapour and of the shock wave were recorded by intensity maps calculated using the recorded digital holograms. From the latter phase maps, the refractive index and the density field can be derived. A model was developed that approaches the density distribution, in particular the ellipsoidal expansion characteristics. The induced shock wave has an ellipsoid shape that approaches a sphere for decreasing spot diameter. The ellipsoidal shock waves have almost the same centre offset towards the laser beam and the same aspect ratio for different time steps. The model facilitates the derivation of the particle velocity field. The method provides valuable quantitative results that are discussed, in particular in comparison with the simpler point source explosion theory.
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to compare the laser ablation process of a Q-switched Nd-YAG laser pulse (wavelength 1064 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) on two different metals (Zn and Ti) under atmospheric air pressure. Digital holograms were recorded for different time delays using collimated laser light (532 nm) passed through the volume along the target. Numerical data of the integrated refractive index field were calculated and presented as phase maps. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and are used to calculate the attenuation of the probing laser beam by the ablated plume. The different structures of the plume, namely streaks normal to the surface for Zn in contrast to absorbing regions for Ti, indicates that different mechanisms of laser ablation could happen for different metals for the same laser settings and surrounding gas. At a laser fluence of 5 J/cm2, phase explosion appears to be the ablation mechanism in case of Zn, while for Ti normal vaporisation seems to be the dominant mechanism.
Spectroscopic holography refers to techniques in which the detected hologram contains information about specific species in the medium under study. In general, at least two lasers are required with wavelengths chosen carefully to fit the interaction process utilized. In this process, energy from the shorter wavelength laser beam is transferred to the longer wavelength coherently through the process of stimulated emission. Two interaction mechanisms are considered; Stimulated Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) and Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), which both are species specific with the ability of coherent interaction. In this paper, the fundamental properties of spectroscopic holography is presented and demonstrated with a few idealized experiments. These validation experiments are performed in a gas chamber in which different gases may be blended and the gas pressure changed between 1-12 bars. In addition, two examples of applications are presented. In the first set of experiments, LIF holography is used to image light absorption and laser heating in a dye simultaneously. The second set of experiments is performed in a ow of methane gas. It is demonstrated that the combination of holographic phase measurements and SRS gain images may be used for calibration. This calibration may further be used to measure absolute concentration in a burning flame.
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to investigate the plume and the shock wave generated in the ablation process of a Q-switched Nd-YAG (λ=1064 nm and pulse duration=12 ns) laser pulse on a polycrystalline boron nitride (PCBN) target under atmospheric air pressure. A special setup based on two synchronised wavelengths from the same laser for simultaneous processing and measurement has been used. Digital holograms were recorded for different time delays using collimated laser light (λ=532 nm) passed through the volume along the target. Numerical data of the integrated refractive index field were calculated and presented as phase maps showing the propagation of the shock wave and the plume generated by the process. Radon inversion has been used to estimate the 3D refractive index fields measured from the projections assuming rotational symmetry. The shock wave density has been calculated using the point explosion model and the shock wave condition equation and its behaviour with time at different power densities ranging from 1.4 to 9.1 GW/cm2 is presented. Shock front densities have been calculated from the reconstructed refractive index fields using the Gladstone-Dale equation. A comparison of the shock front density calculated from the reconstructed data and that calculated using the point explosion model at different time delays has been done. The comparison shows quite good agreement between the model and the experimental data. Finally the reconstructed refractive index field has been used to estimate the electron number density distribution within the laser-induced plasma. The electron number density behaviour with distance from the target at different power densities and its behaviour with time are shown. The electron number densities are found to be in the order of 1018 cm-3 and decay at a rate of 3×1015 electrons/cm3 ns.
Pulsed digital holographic interferometry has been used to study the shock wave induced by a Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (λ = 1064 nm and pulse duration 12 ns) on a polycrystalline boron nitride (PCBN) ceramic target under atmospheric air pressure. A special setup based on using two synchronized wavelengths from the same laser for processing and measurement simultaneously has been introduced. Collimated laser light (λ = 532 nm) passed through the volume along the target and digital holograms were recorded for different time delays after processing starts. Numerical data of the integrated refractive index field were calculated and presented as phase maps showing the propagation of the shock wave generated by the process. The location of the induced shock wave front was observed for different focusing and time delays. The amount of released energy, i.e. the part of the incident energy of the laser pulse that is eventually converted to a shock wave has been estimated using the point explosion model. The released energy is normalized by the incident laser pulse energy and the energy conversion efficiency between the laser pulse and PCBN target has been calculated at different power densities. The results show that the energy conversion efficiency seems to be constant around 80% at high power densities.
The stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) process is sensitive to the relation between the polarization direction of the two laser beams (the pump and the Stokes) that generate it. In this paper, we made use of the polarization sensitivity of the SRS process and used polarization-resolved pulsed digital holography to record the signal from one single-shot hologram. The pump beam polarization was kept vertical, while the Stokes beam polarization was 45 deg. The two polarization components of the Stokes beam were recorded in a single hologram by blending the Stokes beam with two reference beams with orthogonal polarization on the detector. The two components of the Stokes beam were separated in the Fourier domain, and the corresponding intensity maps were calculated. The vertically polarized component of the Stokes beam was amplified due to the SRS process, while the horizontal component experienced no gain. The difference between the vertically and horizontally polarized intensity maps, respectively, was calculated and Fourier transformed to separate the gain signal in the spatial frequency domain. The method was demonstrated on methane (CH4) gas at a pressure of 12 bars. Results show that SRS polarization holography is a promising technique for recording the SRS signal from one single-shot hologram for time-resolved monitoring of specific species.
In this paper pulsed digital holographic detection is coupled to the stimulated laser induced fluorescence (LIF) effect for imaging fluorescent species. A frequency tripled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 355 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) has been used to pump Coumarin 153 dye solved in ethanol. Simultaneously a frequency doubled pulse (532 nm) from the same laser is used to probe the solvent resulting in a gain through stimulated emission. The resulting gain of the probe beam is recorded using digital holography by blending it with a reference beam on the detector. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and used to calculate the gain of the probe beam due to stimulated fluorescence emission which is coupled to the concentration of the dye. The results show that the amplification of the probe beam (532 nm) due to stimulated LIF emission is seen in the intensity maps. The gain is about 40% at a dye concentration of 0.32 g/L and decreases to be about 20% at a dye concentration of 0.04 g/L for a probe beam energy density of 0.1 mJ/cm2. Spectroscopic measurements have been carried out to confirm the holographic results. The results show that stimulated LIF holography is a promising technique for quantitative imaging of fluorescent species.
The stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) signal in diffuse light has been recorded using an optical imaging technique based on spatial modulation. A frequency doubled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 532 nm) has been used to pump a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) cylinder. The frequency tripled (355 nm) beam from the same laser is used to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The Stokes beam (from the OPO) has been tuned to 631.27 nm so that the frequency difference between the pump and the Stokes beams fits a Raman active vibrational mode of the PMMA molecule (2956 cm-1). The two laser beams were overlapped in time and space on a PMMA cylinder resulting in a gain of the Stokes beam through the SRS process of about 4.0 %. For separating the SRS signal, the pump beam was spatially modulated with fringes produced in a Michelson interferometer. The gain of the Stokes beam due to SRS was separated from the Stokes beam background in the Fourier domain. The intensity image has been calculated from an inverse Fourier transform of the separated gain signal. The intensity image shows a gain of the Stokes beam at the area of overlap between the pump beam fringes and the Stokes beam compared to the undisturbed surrounding. The results show that spatial modulation of the pump beam is a promising method to separate the weak SRS signal from the Stokes beam background. This technique can be applied to pin-point specific species and record its spatial and temporal distribution
In this paper, stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) signals have been recorded by an optical imaging technique that is based on spatial modulation. A frequency doubled Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) was used to pump a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) target. The frequency tripled (355 nm) beam from the same laser was used to pump an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The Stokes beam (from the OPO) was tuned to 631.27 nm so that the frequency difference between the pump and the Stokes beams fit the Raman active vibrational mode of the PMMA molecule (2956 cm(-1)). The pump beam has been spatially modulated with fringes produced in a Michelson interferometer. The pump and the Stokes beams were overlapped on the target resulting in a gain of the Stokes beam of roughly 2.5% and a corresponding loss of the pump beam through the SRS process. To demodulate the SRS signal, two images of the Stokes beam without and with the pump beam fringes present were recorded. The difference between these two images was calculated and Fourier transformed. Then, the gain of the Stokes beam was separated from the background in the Fourier domain. The results show that spatial modulation of the pump beam is a promising method to separate the weak SRS signal from the background.
A frequency tripled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 355 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) has been used to pump Coumarin 153 dye solved in ethanol. Simultaneously, a frequency doubled pulse (532 nm) from the same laser is used to probe the solvent perpendicularly resulting in a gain through stimulated laser induced fluorescence (LIF) emission. The resulting gain of the probe beam is recorded using digital holography by blending it with a reference beam on the detector. Two digital holograms without and with the pump beam were recorded. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and used to calculate the gain of the probe beam due to the stimulated LIF. In addition numerical data of the local temperature rise was calculated from the corresponding phase maps using Radon inversion. It was concluded that about 15% of the pump beam energy is transferred to the dye solution as heat while the rest is consumed in the radiative process. The results show that pulsed digital holography is a promising technique for quantitative study of fluorescent species
A frequency tripled Q-switched Nd-YAG laser (wavelength 355 nm, pulse duration 12 ns) has been used to pump Coumarin 153 dye solved in ethanol. The laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectrum has been recorded using a spectrometer at different dye concentrations. The frequency doubled 532 nm beam from the same laser is used as a probe beam to pass through the excited volume of the dye. Because of stimulated emission an increase of the probe (532 nm) beam energy is recorded and a reduction of the spontaneous fluorescence spectrum intensity is observed. A model was developed that approaches the trend of the gain as a function of the probe beam energy at low dye concentrations (less than 0.08 g/L). The stimulated LIF is further recorded using digital holography. Digital holograms were recorded for different dye concentrations using collimated laser light (532 nm) passed through the dye volume. Two holograms without and with the UV laser beam were recorded. Intensity maps were calculated from the recorded digital holograms and are used to calculate the gain of the green laser beam due to the stimulated fluorescence emission which is coupled to the dye concentration. The gain of the coherent 532 nm beam is seen in the intensity maps and its value is about 40% for a dye concentration of 0.32 g/L and decreases with the decrease of the dye concentration. The results show that pulsed digital holography can be coupled to the stimulated LIF effect for imaging fluorescent species
We experimentally demonstrate the presence of a capillary bridge in the contact between an ice particle and a smooth aluminum surface at a relative humidity of approximately 50% and temperatures below the melting point. We conduct the experiments in a freezer with a controlled temperature and consider the mechanical instability of the bridge upon separation of the ice particle from the aluminum surface at a constant speed. We observe that a liquid bridge forms, and this formation becomes more pronounced as the temperature approaches the melting point. We also show that the separation distance is proportional to the cube root of the volume of the bridge. We hypothesize that the volume of the liquid bridge can be used to provide a rough estimate of the thickness of the liquid layer on the ice particle since in the absence of other driving mechanisms, some of the liquid on the surface must have been pulled to the bridge area. We show that the estimated value lies within the range previously reported in the literature. With these assumptions, the estimated thickness of the liquid layer decreases from nearly 56 nm at T = −1.7°C to 0.2 nm at T = −12.7°C. The dependence can be approximated with a power law, proportional to (TM − T)−β, where β < 2.6 and TM is the melting temperature. We further observe that for a rough surface, the capillary bridge formation in the considered experimental conditions vanishes.
We present experiments along with an approximate, semi-analytic, close-form solution to predict ice sintering force as a function of temperature, contact load, contact duration, and particle size during the primary stage of sintering. The ice sintering force increases nearly linear with increasing contact load but nonlinear with both contact duration and particle size in the form of a power law. The exponent of the power law for size dependence is around the value predicted by general sintering theory. The temperature dependence of the sintering force is also nonlinear and follows the Arrhenius equation. At temperatures closer to the melting point, a liquid bridge is observed upon the separation of the contacted ice particles. We also find that the ratio of ultimate tensile strength of ice to the axial stress concentration factor in tension is an important factor in determining the sintering force, and a value of nearly 1.1 MPa can best catch the sintering force of ice in different conditions. We find that the activation energy is around 41.4KJ/mol41.4KJ/mol, which is close to the previously reported data. Also, our results suggest that smaller particles are “stickier” than larger particles. Moreover, during the formation of the ice particles, cavitation and surface cracking is observed which can be one of the sources for the variations observed in the measured ice sintering force.
In automotive industry there is an interest of controlling the shape of a large number of identical components on-line in the manufacturing process. We propose a method to do this by capturing a digital hologram of the object and then using information from its computer aided design (CAD) model to calculate the shape and determine the agreement between the manufactured object and the CAD-model. The holographic recording of the object is done using dual wavelengths with a synthetic wavelength of approximately 400 μm. The optical measurement results in a wrapped phase map with the phase values in the interval [−π, π]. Each phase interval represents a depth distance on the object of about 0.2 mm. The phase unwrapping is done iteratively using information from the CADmodel. This implies that it is possible to measure large discontinuities on the surface of the measured object. The method also gives a point-to-point correspondence between the measurement and the CAD-model which is vital for tolerance control.
In this work two types of lignocellulosic biomass particles, European spruce and American hardwood (particle sizes from 100 μm to 500 μm) were pyrolysed with a continuous wave 2 W Nd:YAG laser. Simultaneously a high-speed camera was used to capture the behavior of the biomass particle as it was heated for about 0.1 s. Cover glasses were used as a sample holder which allowed for light microscope studies after the heating. Since the cover glasses are not initially heated by the laser, vapors from the biomass particle are quenched on the glass within about 1 particle diameter from the initial particle. Image processing was used to track the contour of the biomass particle and the enclosed area of the contour was calculated for each frame.The main observations are: There is a significant difference between how much surface energy is needed to pyrolyses the spruce (about 75% more) compared to the hardwood. The oil-like substance which appeared on the glass during the experiment is solid at room temperature and shows different levels of transparency. A fraction of this substance is water soluble. A brownish coat is seen on the unreacted biomass. The biomass showed insignificant swelling as it was heated. The biomass particle appears to melt and boil at the front that is formed between the laser beam and the biomass particle. The part of the particle that is not subjected to the laser beam seems to be unaffected.
This paper presents studies of the propagation of a high-speed turbulent flame jet of an air/hydrogen gas mixture. The experimental results are recorded with the schlieren and the pulsed TV holography method. These methods are compared and combined to benefit from the advantages of each of them. Abel inversion has been used to achieve three-dimensional information i.e. refractive index distributions. Evaluation, calibration and Abel inversion algorithms are described together with experimental results. The results obtained from the different techniques show remarkable similarities concerning both qualitative and quantitative aspects.
A freezing test apparatus was supplemented with a camera to allow for recording and monitoring one-dimensional freezing tests to analyze the development of ice lenses via particle image velocimetry (PIV) in the laboratory. Two tests on disturbed, partially saturated samples of silt loam were conducted. Image recording and correlation analyses provided detailed information about frost front penetration and ice lens formation(s) under varying temperature boundary conditions. Thawing has also been regarded in further studies.
Results of the image analyses were compared to readings from conventional displacement measurements during the same test. Significant agreement between the results of image analyses and displacement measurements has been found. Test results were also used to establish a qualitative relationship between heat extraction and heave rates. Advantages and disadvantages of utilizing image analysis methods were discussed. Potential remedies for overcoming the drawbacks of using image analysis are suggested.
Image analysis is shown to be a viable method in further understanding of frost heave mechanisms.
Films of wood-chip formation were captured with a high-speed camera during rip sawing of wood with a circular saw blade. The saw blade diameter was 400 mm and the rotational speed was 3250 rpm. The saw blade had four teeth with rake angles of 0°, 10°, 20° and 30° to ascertain the influence of different rake angles. Wooden boards were cut along the side so that the camera could record the cutting sequence without any interference from material between the cutting teeth and the camera. Tests were made for green, dry and frozen green pine boards, for both counter-cutting and climb-cutting cases. In addition, some Mozambican wood species were cut. The films, recorded at 40,000 frames s−1, show the cutting sequence along the trajectory of the tooth in question and the creation of the wood chip. Details such as the compression of the wood chip in the gullet, the movement of the wood chip inwards and outwards in the gullet and finally the exit from the gullet are visible. The chip size and chip movement depend strongly on the rake angle and on whether the wood is green, dry, frozen or unfrozen.
Recent developments in digital high-speed photography allow us to directly observe the surface topology and flow conditions of the melt surface inside a laser evaporated capillary. Such capillaries (known as keyholes) are a central feature of deep penetration laser welding. For the first time, it can be confirmed that the liquid capillary surface has a rippled, complex topology, indicative of subsurface turbulent flow. Manipulation of the raw data also provides quantitative measurements of the vertical fluid flow from the top to the bottom of the keyhole.
Species specific 3D imaging requires control of where in the sample stimulated Raman gain is achieved. By using a phase spatial light modulator the signal position can be calculated, controlled and directly imaged in 3D.
Stimulated Raman scattering is a phenomenon with potential use in providing real-time molecular information in three-dimensions (3D) of a sample using imaging. For precise imaging, the knowledge about the spatial generation of stimulated Raman scattering is essential. To investigate the spatial behavior in an idealized case, computer simulations and experiments were performed. For the computer simulations, diffraction theory was used for the beam propagation complemented with nonlinear phase modulation describing the interaction between the light and matter. For the experiments, a volume of ethanol was illuminated by an expanded light beam and a plane inside the volume was imaged in transmission. For generating stimulated Raman scattering, a pump beam was focused into this volume and led to a beam dump after passing the volume. The pulse duration of the two beams were 6 ns and the pump beam energy ranged from 1 to 27 mJ. The effect of increasing pump power on the spatial distribution of the Raman gain and the spatial growth of the signal at different interaction lengths between the beam and the sample was investigated. The spatial width of the region where the stimulated Raman scattering signal was generated for experiments and simulation was 0.21 and 0.09 mm, respectively. The experimental and simulation results showed that most of the stimulated Raman scattering is generated close to the pump beam focus and the maximum peak of the Stokes intensity spatially comes shortly after the peak of the pump intensity.
This paper reviews earlier work and describes a photographic investigation of damage produced in glasses, polymers and crystals by Q-switched and non-Q-switched laser pulses. The cameras used in the study include a Wollensak Fastax WF3 camera, a Beckman & Whitley (model 189) rotating mirror camera, and a Beckman & Whitley (model 501) image converter camera. The formation of internal disc-type cracks with the non-Q-switched pulse was studied in detail. The use of these cracks for fracture energy studies is demonstrated. Photographic sequences show the production of micro-plasmas associated with damage, and stress waves formed during irradiation in both solids and liquids. A recent development is that of digital holography which adds phase and intensity information to the more conventional photographic techniques. This technique is used here to study laser ablation and wave propagation in water. The photographic data shows the processes taking place in the laser interaction with a wide range of materials and should be of interest to modellers.
Experiments and theory for bending wave propagation of paper sheets in tension are presented. An all-electronic pulsed TV holography technique is used to record the bending wave field initiated by a laser pulse. A theory for bending wave propagation in tensile-loaded paper is developed. The bending waves are influenced by mechanical properties such as density, thickness, bending stiffness, anisotropy and also by tensile forces in the paper. The paper stiffnesses are determined by matching the measured deformation field with the calculated theoretical field. The results show that the bending wave pattern is strongly influenced by the tensile force. For a non-destructive on-line measurement of, e.g. stiffnesses and anisotropy in the paper machine the tensile force must be considered
An all-electronic system for pulsed holographic interferometry called pulsed TV holography is developed. This is a whole-field non-contacting optical measurement method suitable for studies of transient events like wave propagation in solids and fluids. Chemical wet processing of holographic film and optical reconstruction of holograms are no longer needed. The technique was first developed using a double pulsed ruby laser as light source. The holograms are recorded directly on a CCD-detector. Quantitative data of changes in optical path length, caused either by a deformation of a solid object or a change in refractive index in a fluid, are calculated directly in a computer. The system for pulsed TV holography has recently been further developed by the purchase of a new pulsed laser (twin cavity, injection seeded pulsed Nd:YAG) and a CCD camera (PCO Sensicam) with higher spatial resolution and dynamic range. In the survey of this thesis the increased versatility compared to a ruby laser based system is discussed. During the development of the pulsed TV holography system a number of experiments in mechanics and acoustics have been accomplished. Bending waves in impacted plates propagating at a speed of about 2000 m/s are easily “frozen” due to the short duration laser pulses (<30 ns). These waves act as supersonic travelling acoustic sources and generate sound waves in the surrounding air. For the first time, transient sound fields from impacted plates have been visualised and measured using pulsed holographic interferometry. In another experiment, we have demonstrated that the pulsed TV holography system is feasible in combination with tomography. By recording a three-dimensional acoustic pressure field from a number of viewing directions followed by a tomographic reconstruction, the pressure in any point can be calculated. Finally, a method to restore fringes lost by large bulk motions is proposed. This technique may become very attractive in the study of vibrations (preferable transient) on moving or rotating objects. In conclusion, pulsed TV holography is proved to be a fast and reliable method to quantitatively study transients in mechanics and acoustics. The technique has a great potential in experimental mechanics in the future.
Transient bending waves in a rotating hard disk is measured by means of pulsed TV holography. The speckle motion in the detector plane caused by the rotation is compensated for in the interference phase evaluation. The technique is all electronic and needs no image derotator
With traditional double-pulsed holographic interferometry or pulsed TV holography, the experiment usually has to be repeated to allow the recording of a time sequence of interferograms of the event. With the proposed technique a sequence of four interferograms of a solitary transient event is measured. A twin oscillator, injection-seeded, pulsed Nd:YAG laser is incorporated into a pulsed TV holography set-up. With orthogonal polarisation and double pulsing of each of the two channels of the laser, four pulses are recorded on two separate CCD-frames. Four interferograms of a laser-impacted plate obtained from the same experiment, show how the bending waves develop and propagate in the plate.
The measuring of situations with optical measuring methods is difficult when a deformation field must be determined while it is superposed to comparatively large rotating or translating object motion. Interferometric methods such as pulsed TV holography might be suitable to measure the small transient deformation, but the often-large bulk motion makes the phase information disappear. However, by a combination of digital speckle photography (DSP) (also called digital image correlation) with pulsed TV holography, such measuring problems can be mastered. A method to calculate the bulk in-plane motion by DSP from the usual pulsed TV holography recordings and then to use this information to restore the interference phase is proposed. This technique may be attractive in the study of transient vibrations overlaid on rotating or translating motions.
This paper presents studies of the contact between a soft rubber specimen and glass counterface using the Digital Speckle Correlation method, which provides information of displacements and structural similarities between recorded images. The setup is designed with a real contact and changes in the contact can be varied. Microscopic images using laser light illumination for different displacements are recorded and correlated. The results show that the contact area can be identified both for dry and lubricated contacts. The method can be applied on different geometries, surface roughness and lubricants. Influences of scars and contaminations, e.g. wear particles, may also be analysed.
Pulsed TV holography together with CT reconstruction were used to measure the three-dimensional distribution of transient acoustic fields in air. Holograms from several directions were directly recorded onto a CCD detector. From the recorded holograms, phase maps were quantitatively evaluated
Laser vibrometry measurements on a bowed violin are performed. A rotating disc apparatus, acting as a violin bow, is developed. It produces a continuous, long, repeatable, multi-frequency sound from the instrument that imitates the real bow-string interaction for a 'very long bow'. What mainly differs is that the back and forward motion of the real bow is replaced by the rotating motion with constant velocity of the disc and constant bowing force (bowing pressure). This procedure is repeatable. It is long lasting and allows laser vibrometry techniques to be used, which measure forced vibrations by bowing at all excited frequencies simultaneously. A chain of interacting parts of the played violin is studied: the string, the bridge and the plates as well as the emitted sound field. A description of the mechanics and the sound production of the bowed violin is given, i.e. the production chain from the bowed string to the produced tone
A pilot experiment is presented that measures velocity fields in two planes at a blown organ pipe labium for a fundamental tone at 260 Hz. The sound pressure is also measured at the same time as the velocity fields are registered. This makes it possible to follow the change of the velocity field as the sound pressure varies with time. The methods used are stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (PIV) and two-dimensional particle image velocimetry. The difference between the methods is that the first one measures three velocity components by use of two CCD cameras and the second one measures two velocity components with one camera. A double pulsed Nd:YAG laser is used as illuminating source. It gives short light pulses (~13 ns) necessary to resolve the quite high air velocity (~10 m/s). Results show that it is possible to follow a travelling vortex at the organ pipe labium in time as the sound pressure changes. The stereoscopic measurements show that the velocity fields are three-dimensional. The measurements have shown to be repeatable.
The study of a freezing droplet is interesting in areas, where the understanding of build up of ice is important, for example, on wind turbines, airplane wings and roads. In this work, the main focus is to study the internal motion inside freezing water droplets using particle image velocimetry and to reveal if mechanisms such as natural convection and Marangoni convection have a noticeable influence on the flow within the droplet. The flow has successfully been visualized and measured for the first 25% of the total freezing time of the droplet when the velocity in the water is the highest and when the characteristic vortices can be seen. After this initial time period, the high amount of ice in the droplet scatters the PIV light sheet too much and the images retrieved are not suitable for analysis. Initially, it can be seen that the Marangoni effects have a large impact on the internal flow, but after about 15% of the total freezing time, the flow turns indicating increased effects of natural convection on the flow. Shortly after this time, almost no internal flow can be seen.
Stereoscopic particle image velocimetry has been used to investigate inertia dominated, transitional and turbulent flow in a randomly packed bed of monosized PMMA spheres. By using an index-matched fluid, the bed is optically transparent and measurements can be performed in an arbitrary position within the porous bed. The velocity field observations are carried out for particle Reynolds numbers, (Formula presented.), between 20 and 3220, and the sampling is done at a frequency of 75 Hz. Results show that, in porous media, the dynamics of the flow can vary significantly from pore to pore. At (Formula presented.) around 400 the spatially averaged time fluctuations of total velocity reach a maximum and the spatial variation of the time-averaged total velocity, (Formula presented.) increases up to about the same (Formula presented.) and then it decreases. Also in the studied planes, a considerable amount of the fluid moves in the perpendicular directions to the main flow direction and the time-averaged magnitude of the velocity in the main direction, (Formula presented.), has an averaged minimum of 40% of the magnitude of (Formula presented.) at (Formula presented.) about 400. For (Formula presented.), this ratio is nearly constant and (Formula presented.) is on average a little bit less than 50% of (Formula presented.). The importance of the results for longitudinal and transverse dispersion is discussed.
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) has been used to investigate transitional and turbulent flow in a randomly packed bed of mono-sized transparent spheres at particle Reynolds number, (Formula presented.). The refractive index of the liquid is matched with the spheres to provide optical access to the flow within the bed without distortions. Integrated pressure drop data yield that Darcy law is valid at (Formula presented.). The PIV measurements show that the velocity fluctuations increase and that the time-averaged velocity distribution start to change at lower (Formula presented.). The probability for relatively low and high velocities decreases with (Formula presented.) and recirculation zones that appear in inertia dominated flows are suppressed by the turbulent flow at higher (Formula presented.). Hence there is a maximum of recirculation at about (Formula presented.). Finally, statistical analysis of the spatial distribution of time-averaged velocities shows that the velocity distribution is clearly and weakly self-similar with respect to (Formula presented.) for turbulent and laminar flow, respectively
In this paper a single-shot digital holographic set-up with two orthogonally polarized reference beams is proposed to achieve rapid acquisition of Magneto-Optical Kerr Effect images. Principles of the method and the background theory for dynamic state of polarization measurement by use of digital holography are presented. This system has no mechanically moving elements or active elements for polarization control and modulation. An object beam is combined with two reference beams at different off-axis angles and is guided to a detector. Then two complex fields (interference terms) representing two orthogonal polarizations are recorded in a single frame simultaneously. Thereafter the complex fields are numerically reconstructed and carrier frequency calibration is done to remove aberrations introduced in multiplexed digital holographic recordings. From the numerical values of amplitude and phase, a real time quantitative analysis of the polarization state is possible by use of Jones vectors. The technique is demonstrated on a magnetic sample that is a lithographically patterned magnetic microstructure consisting of thin permalloy parallel stripes.
Transient waves in air are recorded and reconstructed using pulsed TV holography and computerized tomography (CT). Experiments are performed with an electrical discharge between two electrodes as the acoustic wave source. The free space wave-fronts and pressure fields are reconstructed. Waves reflected and diffracted by different obstacles are also recorded and reconstructed in three dimensions. Speckle averaging and image processing techniques are used to get the high quality projection fields needed for CT reconstruction.