When exposed to cyclic quasi-static loading, elastic bodies in contact may develop a favourable condition where slip ceases after a few cycles, an occurrence commonly known as frictional shakedown. If the amplitude of the cyclic load is greater than a so-called shakedown limit, shakedown cannot occur. In this review paper, the validity of shakedown theorems in the context of conforming contacts with a la Coulomb friction is first discussed. Then, an optimisation method for determining the shakedown limit of elastic discrete three-dimensional systems is reviewed. Finally, an incremental Gauss-Seidel algorithm, extended to three-dimensional systems, is here illustrated in details for the first time. The algorithm allows us to describe the transient response of normal-tangential coupled systems under a given cyclic loading scenario, and to determine their possible shakedown depending on the initial conditions. An example concerning a discrete conforming contact problem, where either coupling or uncoupling conditions can be imposed, is illustrated.
Contains a collection of invited papers dedicated to the memory of two great mathematicians, Gaetano Fichera and Panagis Panagiotopoulos. The book is centered around the seminal research of G Fichera on the Signorini problem, hemivariational inequalities, nonsmooth global optimization, and regularity results for variational inequatities.
It is well known that contact and friction in thermoelasticity result in mathematical problems which may lack solutions or have multiple solutions. Previously, issues related to thermal contact and issues related to frictional heating have been discussed separately. In this work, the two effects are coupled. Theorems of existence and uniqueness of solutions in two or three space dimensions are obtained - essentially extending, to frictional heating, results due to Duvaut, which were built on Barber's heat exchange conditions. Two qualitatively different existence results are given. The first one requires that the contact thermal resistance goes to zero at least as fast as the inverse of the contact pressure. The second existence theorem requires no such growth condition, but requires instead that the frictional heating, i.e. the sliding velocity times the friction coefficient, is small enough. Finally, it is shown that a solution is unique if the inverse of the contact thermal resistance is Lipschitz continuous and the Lipschitz constant, as well as the frictional heating, is small enough.
If a linear elastic system with frictional interfaces is subjected to periodic loading, any slip which occurs generally reduces the tendency to slip during subsequent cycles and in some circumstances the system ‘shakes down’ to a state without slip. It has often been conjectured that a frictional Melan’s theorem should apply to this problem — i.e. that the existence of a state of residual stress sufficient to prevent further slip is a sufficient condition for the system to shake down. Here we discuss recent proofs that this is indeed the case for ‘complete’ contact problems if there is no coupling between relative tangential displacements at the interface and the corresponding normal contact tractions. By contrast, when coupling is present, the theorem applies only for a few special two-dimensional discrete cases. Counter-examples can be generated for all other cases. These results apply both in the discrete and the continuum formulation.
Mechanical and structural engineers have always strived to make as efficient use of material as possible, e.g. by making structures as light as possible yet able to carry the loads subjected to them. In the past, the search for more efficient structures was a trial-and-error process. However, in the last two decades computational tools based on optimization theory have been developed that make it possible to find optimal structures more or less automatically. Due to the high cost savings and performance gains that may be achieved, such tools are finding increasing industrial use.This textbook gives an introduction to all three classes of geometry optimization problems of mechanical structures: sizing, shape and topology optimization. The style is explicit and concrete, focusing on problem formulations and numerical solution methods. The treatment is detailed enough to enable readers to write their own implementations. On the book's homepage, programs may be downloaded that further facilitate the learning of the material covered.The mathematical prerequisites are kept to a bare minimum, making the book suitable for undergraduate, or beginning graduate, students of mechanical or structural engineering. Practicing engineers working with structural optimization software would also benefit from reading this book."--Publisher's website.
Thermoelastic contact problems can posess non-unique and/or unstable steady-state solutions if there is frictional heating or if there is a pressure-dependent thermal contact resistance at the interface. These two effects have been extensively studied in isolation, but their possible interaction has never been investigated. In this paper, we consider an idealized problem in which a thermoelastic rod slides against a rigid plane with both frictional heating and a contact resistance. For sufficiently low sliding speeds, the results are qualitatively similar to those with no sliding. In particular, there is always an odd number of steady-state solutions, if the steady-state is unique it is stable and if it is non-unique, stable and unstable solutions alternate, with the outlying solutions being stable. However, we identify a sliding speed V0 above which the number of steady states is always even (including zero, implying possible non-existence of a steady-state) and again stable and unstable states alternate. A parallel numerical study shows that for V > V0 there are some initial conditions from which the contact pressure grows without limit in time, whereas for V < V0 the system will always tend to one of the stable steady states. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
In scoliosis, kypholordos and wedge properties of the vertebrae should be involved in determining how stress is distributed in the vertebral column. The impact is logically expected to be maximal at the apex.
Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are used in gas turbines to reduce creep, thermo-mechanical fatigue, and oxidation, or to allow for reduced air cooling. TBCs may fail due to fatigue. Structural optimization methods were applied to optimize the. TBC thickness in such a way as to increase the life of the TBC. The TBC thickness was varied for three cases: 1) minimizing TBC volume, 2) minimizing TBC maximum effective stress, and 3) minimizing compliance (minimizing the strain energy). The results from the optimization were used to estimate the relative change in TBC life via a strain energy based failure criterion and a Coffin-Manson-like expression. Minimization of volume had limited use due to limitations in the current implementation. Minimization of effective stress did not give any significant increase in life. The minimization of compliance increased the estimated TBC life at highly stressed regions.
A method for structural topology optimization of frame structures with flexible joints is presented. A typical frame structure is a set of beams and joints assembled to carry an applied load. The problem considered in this paper is to find the stiffest frame for a given mass. By introducing design variables for beams and joints, a mass distribution for optimal structural stiffness can be found. Each beam can have several design variables connected to its cross section. One of these is an area-type design variable which is used to represent the global size of the beam. The other design variables are of length ratio type, controlling the cross section of the beam. Joints are flexible elements connecting the beams in the structure. Each joint has stiffness properties and a mass. A framework for modelling these stiffnesses is presented and design variables for joints are introduced. We prove a theorem which can be interpreted as the fact that the removal of structural elements, e.g. joints or beams, can be modelled by a small strictly positive material amount assigned to the element. This is needed for the computations of sensitivities used in the applied gradient based iterative method. Both two and three dimensional problems, as well as multiple load cases and multiple mass constraints, are treated.
A topology optimization formulation including a model of the layer-by-layer additive manufacturing (AM) process is considered. Defined as a multi-objective minimization problem, the formulation accounts for the performance and cost of both the final and partially manufactured designs and allows for considering AM-related issues such as overhang and residual stresses in the optimization. The formulation is exemplified by stiffness optimization in which the overhang is limited by adding mechanical or thermal compliance as a measure of the cost of partially manufactured designs. Convergence of the model as the approximate layer-by-layer model is refined is shown theoretically, and an extensive numerical study indicates that this convergence can be fast, thus making it a computationally viable approach useful for including AM-related issues into topology optimization. The examples also show that drips and sharp corners associated with some geometry-based formulations for overhang limitation can be avoided. The codes used in this article are written in Python using only open sources libraries and are available for reference.
This paper presents a computational methodology for shape optimization of structures in frictionless contact, which provides a basis for developing user-friendly and efficient shape optimization software. For evaluation it has been implemented as a subsystem of a general finite element software. The overall design and main principles of operation of this software are outlined. The parts connected to shape optimization are described in more detail. The key building blocks are: analytic sensitivity analysis, an adaptive finite element method, an accurate contact solver, and a sequential convex programing optimization algorithm. Results for three model application examples are presented, in which the contact pressure and the effective stress are optimized. cr 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
This paper describes a new approach to optimization of linear elastic structures in frictional contact. It uses a novel method to determine an, in a specified sense, likely equilibrium state of the structure, using only the static equilibrium conditions. That is, no complex dynamic/quasi-static analyses have to be performed. The approach has the advantage that it is not necessary to know the complete load history, which is most often unknown for practical problems. To illustrate the theory, numerical results are given for the optimal design problem of sizing a truss to attain a more uniform normal contact force distribution.
The paper concerns robustness with respect to uncertain loading in topology optimization problems with essentially arbitrary objective functions and constraints. Using a game theoretic framework we formulate problems, or games, defining Nash equilibria. In each game a set of topology design variables aim to find an optimal topology, while a set of load variables aim to find the worst possible load. Several numerical examples with uncertain loading are solved in 2D and 3D. The games are formulated using global stress, mass and compliance as objective functions or constraints.
The paper concerns worst-case compliance optimization by finding the structural topology with minimum compliance for the loading due to the worst possible acceleration of the structure and attached non-structural masses. A main novelty of the paper is that it is shown how this min-max problem can be formulated as a non-linear semi-definite programming (SDP) problem involving a small-size constraint matrix and how this problem is solved numerically. Our SDP formulation is an extension of an eigenvalue problem seen previously in the literature; however, multiple eigenvalues naturally arise which makes the eigenvalue problem non-smooth, whereas the SDP problem presented in this paper provides a computationally tractable problem. Optimized designs, where the uncertain loading is due to acceleration of applied masses and the weight of the structure itself, are shown in two and three dimensions and we show that these designs satisfy optimality conditions that are also presented.
We present a contribution to a relatively unexplored application of topology optimization: structural topology optimization with fatigue constraints. A probability based high-cycle fatigue analysis is combined with principal stress calculations in order to find the topology with minimal mass that can withstand prescribed loading conditions for a specific life time. This allows us to generate optimal conceptual designs of structural components where fatigue life is the dimensioning factor.
We describe the fatigue analysis and present ideas that makes it possible to separate the fatigue analysis from the topology optimization. The number of constraints is kept low as they are applied to stress clusters, which are created such that they give adequate representations of the local stresses. Optimized designs constrained by fatigue and static stresses are shown and a comparison is also made between stress constraints based on the von Mises criterion and the highest tensile principal stresses.
We present a global (one constraint) version of the clustered approach previously developed for stress constraints, and also applied to fatigue constraints, in topology optimization. The global approach gives designs without large stress concentrations or geometric shapes that would cause stress singularities. For example, we solve the well known L-beam problem and obtain a radius at the internal corner.
The main reason for using a global stress constraint in topology optimization is to reduce the computational cost that a high number of constraints impose. In this paper we compare the computational cost and the results obtained using a global stress constraint versus using a number of clustered stress constraints.
We also present a method for deactivating those design variables that are not expected to change in the current iteration. The deactivation of design variables provides a considerable decrease of the computational cost and it is made in such a way that approximately the same final design is obtained as if all design variables are active.
This paper develops and evaluates a method for handling stress constraints in topology optimization. The stress constraints are used together with an objective function that minimizes mass or maximizes stiffness, and in addition, the traditional stiffness based formulation is discussed for comparison. We use a clustering technique, where stresses for several stress evaluation points are clustered into groups using a modified P-norm to decrease the number of stress constraints and thus the computational cost. We give a detailed description of the formulations and the sensitivity analysis. This is done in a general manner, so that different element types and 2D as well as 3D structures can be treated. However, we restrict the numerical examples to 2D structures with bilinear quadrilateral elements. The three formulations and different approaches to stress constraints are compared using two well known test examples in topology optimization: the L-shaped beam and the MBB-beam. In contrast to some other papers on stress constrained topology optimization, we find that our formulation gives topologies that are significantly different from traditionally optimized designs, in that it actually manage to avoid stress concentrations. It can therefore be used to generate conceptual designs for industrial applications.
It has recently been pointed out that muscle decomposition influence muscle force estimates in musculoskeletal simulations. We show analytically and with numerical simulations that this influence depends on the recruitment criteria. Moreover, we also show that the proper choices of force normalization factors may overcome the issue. Such factors for the minmax and the polynomial criteria are presented.
The homogenized material optimization (HMO) problem is a novel structural optimization problem that we have developed for optimization of fiber reinforced composite structures. In the HMO problem we apply a smeared-out approach to model the material properties of fiber reinforced composite materials. The objective of the HMO problem is to maximize the stiffness of a composite structure by means of finding the optimal distribution of composite material, belonging to a fixed set of fiber orientations, across the design domain. In order to obtain manufacturable solutions, we have introduced a linear density filter as a restriction method to control the thickness variation across the design domain. To examine the effect of the density filter on the thickness variation and the objective function value of composite structures, obtained in the HMO problem, we have performed numerical tests for different load cases, mesh densities and range of the filter radius.
It is observed that for the present problem the thickness variation was mesh-independent. Both the thickness variation and objective function value depend on the load case used in the HMO problem. For all load cases the thickness variations exhibits an approximately piece-wise linear behaviour for increased filter radius. Furthermore, it was observed that an increase of filter radius would result in an moderate increase in objective function value for the solutions obtained from the HMO problem. From these results we conclude that by using a density filter, the HMO problem can be used to obtain manufacturable designs for composite structures.
In the present work we propose a two phase composite structure optimization method based on a novel material homogenization approach. It consists of a stiffness and a lay-up optimization problem, respectively, with the aim of obtaining manufacturable composite structures with maximized stiffness properties. The method is applied to a cantilever plate, and numerical tests were performed for three load cases and for a number of parameters settings. The results show that the proposed method can obtain manufacturable composite structures with maximized stiffness properties. In the first phase of the method, the stiffness optimization problem provides an optimal distribution of the composite material, such that the stiffness properties of the structureare maximized. The second phase, the lay-up optimization problem, provides a manufacturable lay-up sequence of discrete plies which attempts to retain the stiffness properties of the structure from the first phase.
The present paper presents a model of damage coupled to wear. The damage model is based on a continuum model including the gradient of the damage variable. Such a model is non-local in the sense that the evolution of damage is governed by a boundary-value problem instead of a local evolution law. Thereby, the well-known mesh-dependency observed for local damage models is removed. Another feature is that the boundary conditions can be used to introduce couplings between bulk damage and processes at the boundary. In this work such a coupling is suggested between bulk damage and wear at the contact interface. The model is regarded as a first attempt to formulate a continuum damage model for studying crack initiation in fretting fatigue. The model is given within a thermodynamic framework, where it is assured that the principles of thermodynamics are satisfied. Furthermore, two variational formulations of the full initial boundary value problem, serving as starting points for finite element discretization, are presented. Finally, preliminary numerical results for a simple one-dimensional example are presented and discussed. It is qualitatively shown how the evolution of damage may influence the wear behaviour and how damage may be initiated by the wear process. © 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
In the present paper three algorithms are applied to a finite element model of two thermoelastic bodies in frictional wearing contact. All three algorithms utilize a modification of a Newton method for B-differentiable equations as non-linear equation solver. In the first algorithm the fully-coupled system of thermomechanical equations is solved directly using the modified method, while in the other two algorithms the equation system is decoupled in one mechanical part and another thermal part which are solved using an iterative strategy of Gauss-Seidel type. The two iterative algorithms differ in which order the parts are solved. The numerical performance of the algorithms are investigated for two two-dimensional examples. Based on these numerical results, the behaviour of the model is also discussed. It is found that the iterative approach where the thermal subproblem is solved first is slightly more efficient for both examples. Furthermore, it is shown numerically how the predicted wear gap is influenced by the bulk properties of the contacting bodies, in particular how it is influenced by thermal dilatation. © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.
In this paper finite element approaches for fretting fatigue are proposed on the basis of a non-local model of continuum damage coupled to friction and wear. The model is formulated in the frame-work of a standard material. In a previous paper this was done in the spirit of Maugin, where an extra entropy flux is introduced in the second law in order to include the gradient of the internal variable in a proper manner. In this paper we follow instead the ideas of Frémond and others, where this extra entropy flux is no longer needed, but instead new non-classical balance laws associated to damage, friction and wear, respectively, are derived from the principle of virtual power. The standard material is then defined as usual by state laws based on free energies and complementary laws based on dissipation potentials. In particular, we pick free energies and dissipation potentials that correspond to a non-local continuum damage model coupled to friction and wear. In addition, the boundary conditions at the contact interface creates a coupling between damage and wear. This is a key feature of our model, which makes it very useful in studies of fretting fatigue. By starting from a variational formulation of the governing equations, two different finite element algorithms are implemented. Both algorithms are based on a Newton method for semi-smooth equations. In the first algorithm the Newton method is applied to the entire system of equations, while in the second algorithm the system of equations is split into two different parts such that an elastic wear problem is solved for fixed damage followed by the solution of the damage evolution problem for the updated displacements and contact forces in an iterative process. The latter algorithm can be viewed as a Gauss-Seidel scheme. The numerical performance of the algorithms is investigated for three two-dimensional examples of increasing complexity. Based on the numerical solutions, the behavior of the model is also discussed. For instance, it is shown numerically how the initiation of damage depends on the contact geometry, the coefficient of friction and the evolution of wear.
In this paper a mathematical formulation and a numerical algorithm for the analysis of impact of rigid bodies against rigid obstacles are developed. The paper concentrates on three-dimensional motion using a direct approach where the impenetrability condition and Coulomb's law of friction are formulated as equations, which are not differentiable in the usual sense, and solved together with the equations of motion and necessary kinematical relations using Newton's method. An experiment has also been performed and compared with predictions of the algorithm, with favorable results.
This paper presents a general mathematical structure for design optimization problems, where state problem functionals are used as design objectives.It extends to design optimization the general model of physical theories pioneered by Tonti (1972, 1976) and Oden and Reddy (1974, 1983). It turns out that the classical structural optimization problem of compliance minimization is a member of the treated general class of problems. Other particular examples, discussed in the paper, are related to Darcy-Stokes flow and pipe flow models. A main novel feature of the paper is the unification of seemingly different design problems, but the general mathematical structure also explains some previously not fully understood phenomena. For instance, the self-penalization property of Stokes flow design optimization receives an explanation in terms of minimization of a concave function over a convex set.
This textbook on models and modeling in mechanics introduces a new unifying approach to applied mechanics: through the concept of the open scheme, a step-by-step approach to modeling evolves. The unifying approach enables a very large scope on relatively few pages: the book treats theories of mass points and rigid bodies, continuum models of solids and fluids, as well as traditional engineering mechanics of beams, cables, pipe flow and wave propagation.
In associated plasticity, systems subjected to cyclic loading are sometimes predicted to shake down, meaning that, after some dissipative cycles, the response goes back to a purely elastic state, where no plastic flow occurs. Frictional systems show a similar behaviour, in the sense that frictional slips due to the external loads may cease after some cycles. It has been proved that, for complete contacts with elastic behaviour and Coulomb friction, Melans theorem gives a sufficient condition for the system to shake down, if and only if there is no normal-tangential coupling at the interfaces. In this paper, the case of discrete systems combining elastic-plastic behaviour and Coulomb friction is considered. In particular, it is proved that Melans theorem still holds for contact-wise uncoupled systems, i.e., the existence of a residual state, comprised of frictional slips and plastic strains, is a sufficient condition for the system to shake down. (C) 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Elastic systems with frictional interfaces subjected to periodic loading are sometimes predicted to 'shake down' in the sense that frictional slip ceases after the first few loading cycles. The similarities in behaviour between such systems and monolithic bodies with elastic-plastic constitutive behaviour have prompted various authors to speculate that Melan's theorem might apply to them - i.e., that the existence of a state of residual stress sufficient to prevent further slip is a sufficient condition for the system to shake down. In this paper, we prove this result for 'complete' contact problems in the discrete formulation (i) for systems with no coupling between relative tangential displacements at the interface and the corresponding normal contact tractions and (ii) for certain two-dimensional problems in which the friction coefficient at each node is less than a certain critical value. We also present counter-examples for all systems that do not fall into these categories, thus giving a definitive statement of the conditions under which Melan's theorem can be used to predict whether such a system will shake down. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
In previous studies, residual stresses and strains in soft tissues have been experimentally investigated by cutting the material into pieces that are assumed to become stress free. The present paper gives a theoretical basis for such a procedure, based on a classical theorem of continuum mechanics. As applications of the theory we study rotationally symmetric cylinders and spheres. A computer algebra system is used to state and solve differential equations that define compatible strain distributions. A mapping previously used in constructing a mathematical theory for the mechanical behavior of arteries is recovered as a corollary of the theory, but is found not to be unique. It is also found, for a certain residual strain distribution, that a sphere can be cut from pole to pole to form a stress and strain free configuration.
This paper presents a theory of residual stresses, with applications to biomechanics, especially to arteries. For a hyperelastic material, we use an initial local deformation tensor K as a descriptor of residual strain. This tensor, in general, is not the gradient of a global deformation, and a stress-free reference configuration, denoted B¯, therefore, becomes incompatible. Any compatible reference configuration B0 will, in general, be residually stressed. However, when a certain curvature tensor vanishes, there actually exists a compatible and stress-free configuration, and we show that the traditional treatment of residual stresses in arteries, using the opening–angle method, relates to such a situation.
Boundary value problems of nonlinear elasticity are preferably formulated on a fixed integration domain. For residually stressed bodies, three such formulations naturally appear: (i) a formulation relating to B0 with a non-Euclidean metric structure; (ii) a formulation relating to B0 with a Euclidean metric structure; and (iii) a formulation relating to the incompatible configuration B¯. We state these formulations, show that (i) and (ii) coincide in the incompressible case, and that an extra term appears in a formulation on B¯, due to the incompatibility.
The field of topology optimization is well developed for load carrying trusses, but so far not for other similar network problems. The present paper is a first study in the direction of topology optimization of flow networks. A linear network flow model based on Hagen-Poiseuille's equation is used. Cross-section areas of pipes are design variables and the objective of the optimization is to minimize a measure, which in special cases represents dissipation or pressure drop, subject to a constraint on the available (generalized) volume. A ground structure approach where cross-section areas may approach zero is used, whereby the optimal topology (and size) of the network is found.A substantial set of examples is presented: Small examples are used to illustrate difficulties related to non-convexity of the optimization problem, larger arterial tree-type networks, with bio-mechanics interpretations, illustrate basic properties of optimal networks, the effect of volume forces is exemplified.We derive optimality conditions which turns out to contain Murray's law, thereby, presenting a new derivation of this well known physiological law. Both our numerical algorithm and the derivation of optimality conditions are based on an e-perturbation where cross-section areas may become small but stay finite. An indication of the correctness of this approach is given by a theorem, the proof of which is presented in an appendix. © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
The present theoretical note shows how a natural objective function in stiffness optimization, including both prescribed forces and non-zero prescribed displacements, is the equilibrium potential energy. It also shows how the resulting problem has a saddle point character that may be utilized when calculating sensitivities.
Stiffness topology optimization is usually based on a state problem of linear elasticity, and there seems to be little discussion on what is the limit for such a small rotation-displacement assumption. We show that even for gross rotations that are in all practical aspects small (<3 deg), topology optimization based on a large deformation theory might generate different design concepts compared to what is obtained when small displacement linear elasticity is used. Furthermore, in large rotations, the choice of stiffness objective (potential energy or compliance), can be crucial for the optimal design concept. The paper considers topology optimization of hyperelastic bodies subjected simultaneously to external forces and prescribed non-zero displacements. In that respect it generalizes a recent contribution of ours to large deformations, but we note that the objectives of potential energy and compliance are no longer equivalent in the non-linear case. We use seven different hyperelastic strain energy functions and find that the numerical performance of the Kirchhoff–St.Venant model is in general significantly worse than the performance of the other six models, which are all modifications of this classical law that are equivalent in the limit of infinitesimal strains, but do not contain the well-known collapse in compression. Numerical results are presented for two different problem settings.