The prevalence, distribution, and location of dental caries were studied in complete and partial human dentitions dating from the Viking Age dating (900-1050 AD) excavated in Kopparsvik on island of Gotland, Sweden. 18 individuals and a total of 370 teeth were examined, using a strong light source and dental probe. Carious lesions were found in a large number of the individuals, 14 out of 18. The percentage of teeth affected by caries (11,9%) corresponds well with studied skull materials from the same period. The surface most susceptible to caries was the occlusal surface, whereas only a few proximal lesions and one single carious root surface was found. The tooth most commonly affected by caries was the mandibular first molar. The tooth most commonly missing ante-mortem was also the mandibular molar, and the tooth most commonly missing post mortem was the mandibular incisor. Other findings included apical infections, which were detected clinically in 3% of the teeth.
Little is known about the possible impact of socioeconomic status on bone health in medieval Norway. We measured bone mineral density in the skeletal remains of 101 females from five medieval burial sites in Eastern Norway representing distinct socioeconomic groups by comparing results from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and osteological analysis. Young adult females of high status were taller than parish population females (5.3 cm, p = 0.01), although their femoral neck bone mineral density did not differ significantly between the two groups (p = 0.127). We found that the parish population females had a significantly higher occurrence of osteopenia and osteoporosis in old adulthood (p = 0.003), with an estimated disease risk of 0.53 versus 0.16 in the high-status group, possibly related to a lower attained maximum bone mineral density. We discuss environmental and genetic factors in light of relevant research literature on life in medieval Norway and offer an explanation for the significant taller stature among high-status females and the higher risk for osteopenia/osteoporosis in the parish population. This work adds to our knowledge of young adult bone mineral density and bone loss in relation to socioeconomic status in a medieval female population of Norway.
Lions reached their northernmost distribution in the Carpathian Basin at a time when the climate turned cooler and drier and the complex Late Neolithic settlement network, marked by human populations concentrated on and around tells, disintegrated. A perforated distal phalanx and a calcaneus of lion (Panthera leo L., 1758) from two different Copper Age (5th-4th millennium cal BC) settlements in Hungary contribute to mapping the distribution of Holocene lions in southeast Europe. Previous discoveries of lion bones (representing all parts of the body) have offered evidence of local lion hunting and probable consumption. The new finds also illustrate the cognitive significance of lions and help reconstruct their phenotypic size. The perforated phalanx discussed in this paper represents the large dewclaw of a powerful male, the first ever worked lion bone available in Hungary. The calcaneus offers additional metric information interpreted in light of measurements taken on extant individuals from both Asia and Africa. Inseparable environmental and cultural factors leading to the occurrence and extinction of prehistoric lions in the Carpathian Basin are reviewed in light of these new data.
This study aims to promote consistent observations of sacralization, a relatively common form of lumbosacral transitional vertebrae (LSTV). Sacralization can inform on genetic affiliation. There are four types, ranging from enlarged transverse processes to bony ankylosis. Complete sacralization reportedly occurs in 1.5%-14% of archeological and modern populations, yet clinical studies can conflate types, resulting in rates as high as 46%. Archeologically obtained sacra and lower lumbar vertebrae from two historical shipwrecks (16th century English warship Mary Rose and 17th century Swedish warship Kronan) are compared via gross observation. These semi-documented individuals, fit enough to be on a warship during battle, have a documented cause, manner, and date of death. The assemblages yield 120 sacra; complete sacralization is compared between the crews. Both crude and true prevalence of bony ankyloses are recorded with chi(2) analyses testing significance. Both samples have 16.7% true prevalence of complete sacralization, with 38.3% of Mary Rose sacra and 26.7% of Kronan sacra showing some variant of LSTV. It is possible the high rates of sacralization shown in both crews are related to the samples being drawn from similar populations: a Swedish clinical study finds a similar rate of 13.9% for complete sacralization. However, reported rates of less than 1.0% in other archeological samples suggest that true sacralization is inconsistently recognized. Finally, clinical and archeological studies either conflate all types or fail to state their diagnostic criteria, reducing the ability to accurately compare findings.
The discovery of burials at S:t Olofsholm, a site associated with the Saint Olaf cult on Gotland in Sweden, has enabled a bioarchaeological contextualization of medieval legends and sagas in conjunction with the archaelogical record. This study seeks to illuminate who were buried at S:t Olofsholm, through a biocultural lens, and whether these burials can be linked to folklore and sagas associated with the site. Five burials of possibly six individuals (cal. AD 980-1270) were assessed macroscopically and through stable isotope analysis (delta C-13, delta N-15, delta S-34, Sr-87/Sr-86, and delta O-18) of incremental dentine, bulk enamel, and bone samples. Sagas and legends associated with S:t Olofsholm mention episodes of conflict and contact involving King Olaf Haraldsson of Norway (later canonized as Saint Olaf), Gutes and Icelanders, and travels between Norway and Kyiv Rus. Two (or three) burials show signs of violent deaths, including evidence of sharp force trauma and burning. Isotope analyses indicate local and non-local signals, with possible links to southern Scandinavia, Britain, Iceland, the Baltics, and Kyiv Rus. In general, the evidence neither challenges nor confirms the legends and sagas associated with S:t Olofsholm. Instead, the findings illustrate the site's function as an early Christian place of worship within a wider Viking world that was characterized by travel and contact across the Baltic Sea, Scandinavia, and beyond. The burials at S:t Olofsholm are likely to be non-normative as indicated by their place of interment and the violent cause of death of most individuals.
This paper presents the results from Flame Atomic absorption spectroscopy Trace elements analyses for lead, zinc and copper in human bone samples from 31 Scandinavian inhumation graves from the Iron Age and Early Medieval Period (c 200-1100 AD). The analyses were undertaken to evaluate the evidences of a possible connection between raised levels of – primarily – skeletal lead and ante mortem exposure during working of non-ferrous metals. The result showed that significantly elevated levels of skeletal lead were present in samples from two individuals whose burials included tools for metalworking whereas a third individual with elevated lead levels had not been buried with any metalworking insignia. Previous studies have connected increased levels of lead with post mortem diagenetic alteration but despite that it is cautiously argued that the increased levels of skeletal lead should rather be seen as a result of involvement in non-ferrous metalworking.
The articulated skeleton of an adult male lynx was found in association with four dogs and scattered bones of other domesticates in a pit at Zamárdi-Kútvölgyi-dűlő II, Hungary. Lynx remains occur rarely in the archaeological record, and protocols for ageing and sexing do not exist. The intact skull of the skeleton offered an opportunity to review the craniological features of the species in comparison with a reference material of extant individuals, complementing our knowledge of lynx osteology, providing an empirical basis for zooarchaeological evaluation. Although caution is due in assigning a concrete function to the curious Zamárdi deposit, familiarity with the craniological properties, habitat preferences, and behavior of Eurasian lynx is indispensable in cultural interpretations subject to a forthcoming study on the osteoarchaeology of this rare wild felid.
Palaeohistology as a valuable diagnostic instrument is dependent on the production of high-quality thin-ground sections from dry bone. The objective of this study was to consider technical differences and assess the qualitative outcomes of five techniques for preparing thin-ground sections from dry archaeological bone. Established techniques with long follow-up times and excellently documented results were compared with simpler and cheaper time-saving techniques. Evaluations were made of the quality of thin sections obtained by one classical machine-based embedding technique, two revised versions of the same technique, one manual moulding technique based on Frost's rapid technique and one manual hybrid technique. Five osteological specimens of differing quality were prepared following the manuals for these five techniques and examined microscopically with respect to a list of standardised histological and diagenetic parameters. Alterations in the specimens attributable to preparation effects were recorded, and observations were scored with reference to three criteria: section quality, technical quality and staining. The results show that embedding techniques are to prefer. Superglue should not be used as a mounting or embedding medium. Manual grinding comes with several limitations, and machine cutting and grinding are preferred. Haematoxylin staining can be successfully applied to embedded specimens, giving more information on microscopic diagenetic processes. A stepwise manual for a revision of the classical embedding technique is presented. The time required for producing sections using classical embedding techniques is shortened from 6 weeks to 3.7 days by refining the preparation/polymerization processes involved with no loss of osteological data.
Many archaeological bones display a heterogeneous degradation pattern. Highly degraded bones could contain pockets of well-preserved bone, harbouring good quality DNA. This dichotomy may explain why the relationships between global bone preservation parameters such as histological integrity, bone mineral crystallinity or collagen yield, and bulk DNA preservation/amplification success rate have been found to be at best, weak to moderate. In this pilot study, we explore whether or not a more localised approach will highlight a stronger relationship between diagenetic parameters and DNA preservation. This study includes a detailed histological characterisation of bone diagenesis in sub-areas of three bone samples. Regions of the same bone, which displayed differential degrees of preservation or type of diagenesis were sampled for further analysis and both genetic (small scale Illumina MiSeq sequencing) and chemical (Fourier-transform infrared spectrometric analysis) analyses were performed. The aim was to investigate how bone diagenetic processes relate to DNA preservation at a higher resolution than in previous studies. This is key in order to improve DNA analytical success rates. The expected relationship between bone and DNA preservation (retrieved endogenous DNA) was observed and the results corroborate previous work that DNA preservation is linked to the integrity of bone collagen and mineral. The results further suggest that non-biological diagenetic alterations such as etching and the presence of mineral infiltrations and inclusions have a negative effect on DNA preservation/extraction. Copyright (C) 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In Sigtuna, Sweden, a medieval cemetery, including 227 skeletons, was analysed in 2006. On the outskirts of the churchyard, six skeletons with bone changes indicating systemic inflammatory disease were observed. Two out of three individuals with well‐preserved facial bone regions displayed signs of rhinomaxillary remodelling. Four of the afflicted exhibit severe bilateral alterations of the lower legs and phalanges of the feet and concentric atrophy of the metatarsals. In addition, one of the individuals exhibited a kyphosis in the lumbar vertebrae. In a discussion about alternative diagnoses, lepromatous leprosy and tuberculosis were identified as the causes of the destructive lesions in two individuals. Though the skeletal changes of the lower legs and feet in four cases demonstrate a close resemblance to secondary lesions of leprosy, the disease could not be confirmed. The skeletal changes of the last individual were unspecific and the possible causes several, rendering diagnosis difficult.
The burial locations imply that the afflicted persons belonged to a lower social stratum. Due to the significantly higher frequency of pathological changes in the cemetery compared to other cemeteries in the town, the individuals could be regarded as fellow sufferers among others with various medical conditions. The bioarchaeological identification of systemic infectious diseases of a group of individuals of this size is unique to north of Scania in Sweden, where only a few cases of leprosy and tuberculosis have previously been diagnosed. The significance of the present study is emphasised by the interconnection between the afflicted, the archaeological context and the knowledge of the medieval society in Sigtuna.
Cranial skeletal lesions as well as linear enamel hypoplasias were investigated in an Early Iron Age (0–260 A.D.) population from Sweden. The analyses included the study of maxillary- and frontal sinusitis, cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasias in order to investigate nutritional and environmental related stress as well as possible relation to oral health. A majority of both subadult and adult individuals exhibited maxillary sinusitis as well as cribra orbitalia. In contrast, linear enamel hypoplasias were not frequently noted, although, the highest frequencies were found among the subadult individuals. In seven cases (12.7%) there was a clear correlation between a periapical lesions and maxillary sinusitis. A significant correlation between maxillary sinusitis and frontal sinusitis was found among adult individuals. Sixty-eight percent of the adults showed lesions in both these regions. The least common combination in adults was cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasias where 7.7% only exhibited lesions in both these regions. The significantly higher incidence of this combination among subadults at Smörkullen suggests that this may have been related to life threatening conditions. Overall, the result showed that the individuals at Smörkullen foremost suffered from upper respiratory diseases as well as nutritional deficiency.
The dental status of Early Iron Age agricultural populations in Sweden has not been extensively documented. The aim of this study was to record caries status in human remains from an Early Iron Age burial ground, Smorkullen, at Alvastra, Ostergotland, Sweden. The study included 96 adults and 50 subadults and comprised 1794 permanent teeth in the adults and 468 permanent and 221 deciduous teeth in the subadults. The caries frequency was exceptionally high, afflicting most of the adults (92.6%): 46.2% of the teeth examined showed signs of caries disease. Most of the lesions were shallow. However, around 60% of the adult individuals had moderate and severe lesions, which probably had an immediate impact on health. Lesions were most common in the cervical region and this is probably related to dietary patterns where the starchy, sticky food tended to accumulate around the necks of the teeth. Children showed low caries frequency, whereas most juveniles (91.7%) were affected. Most of the teeth with alveolar bone loss showed no signs of cervical or root caries lesions. However, in cases of moderate and severe loss of alveolar bone, seen mostly in the older age group, the frequency of cervical and root lesions was higher. Few initial caries lesions were observed, indicating an aggressive pattern of disease in this population. The lack of gender-related differences suggests that the diet was similar for both sexes, across all age groups.
As in modern populations, dental caries in early populations is linked to diet and general health. In order to record not only advanced disease states with frank cavitation of teeth but also early lesions, indicating the presence of the disease in a population, it is important that the archaeologist can correctly detect and classify lesions of varying severity. The present study compares and contrasts quantification of dental caries by osteologists and odontologists. Four osteologists and four odontologists undertook visual and radiographic inspection of 61 teeth from three different sources: medieval, 19th century and modern. Separate sets of criteria were applied to disclose observer confidence in detecting a lesion and in estimating lesion extent. For validation of visual assessments, the teeth were sectioned. Radiographic assessments were validated by a specialist in dental radiography. The results disclosed that the odontologists in general showed greater sensitivity than the osteologists, correctly identifying carious lesions, but the osteologists had higher specificity, correctly identifying healthy teeth. Thus, the osteologists tend to overlook carious lesions (under-diagnosis), while the odontologists tend to incorrectly record lesions in healthy teeth (over-diagnosis). For both osteologists and odontologists, correct assessment was poorer for radiographs than for visual inspection.
In the skeletal remains of earlier populations, the presence and severity of dental caries preserves evidence about general health and diet. The quality of the data collected on dental caries is highly dependent on the diagnostic skills of the examining osteologist. A major barrier to more detailed data is reliance on visual inspection only. The present study compared quantification of carious lesions by osteologists, using both visual and radiographic inspection. Four osteologists with varying experience of caries diagnosis registered the presence and extent of dental caries on the crown and root surfaces of 61 teeth sourced from three different samples: Archaeological, Anthropological and Modern. The teeth were subsequently sectioned to provide a control or standard reference. The interobserver differences were calculated as sensitivity (observer correctness in identifying teeth with caries disease). The two observers with more experience of dental paleopathology showed higher agreement with the standard reference than the other two observers, i.e. they correctly diagnosed more carious lesions. The most pronounced interobserver difference was for radiographic inspection of root surfaces. The recordings by the two experienced observers conformed much more closely with the standard reference than those of the less experienced observers. The results confirm that experience has a major influence on practical observations in dental paleopathology. The quality of collected data on dental caries could be enhanced by improving osteologists’ knowledge of the disease process and the application of uniform, unambiguous criteria for registration of carious lesions.
This study aims to reconstruct the biological histories of the people buried at the Royal Chapel of Lugo Cathedral, an important religious center of NW Spain, by using anthropological, geochemical, and historical perspectives. We conducted a macroscopic and radiographic study on 955 skeletal elements, a multi-isotope (delta C-13(col), delta N-15, delta S-34(col), delta C-13(ap), delta O-18(ap)) analysis of human (n = 12) and animal (n = 4) samples, and the study of 1407 documents from the cathedral archives. There was a minimum of 15 individuals, including six subadults (<7 years), seven mature males, and one possible female. Several traumatic healed injuries, a pelvis osteochondroma, and a case of DISH have been detected. Males were enriched in N-15 (up to 15.7 parts per thousand, Delta(human-animal avg) = 5.1 parts per thousand) suggesting consumption of animal protein including freshwater fish. Cathedral documents reflect fora payments in the form of rye, eggs, poultry, sheep, pigs, and eels as well as the hiring of two physicians. All individuals, except one, lived between the 14(th) and the early 15(th) centuries and show characteristics of high standard of living. Males were likely members of the cathedral-chaplains, administrators, sacristans, but not bishops-or noblemen relatives of the former according to preserved documents. Isotopic and paleopathological study suggest that they had an active and traveling life and at least one of them had connections with Central Spain. Children were local and possibly connected to the nobility. Lugo Cathedral is a prime example about the possibilities of transdisciplinary research in the identification of lifestyle in past populations.
Linking MSM (Musculoskeletal Stress Markers) to specific activities is difficult. This problem is explored by combining and comparing patterns of MSM and material culture. Sex- and age-related patterns for MSM and grave goods distributions are analysed and compared from five Pitted Ware (c. 3400–2300 BC) sites on Gotland, Sweden. Possible links between MSM patterns, burial objects, faunal remains and subsistence are explored for a better understanding of some of the irregularities surrounding the Pitted Ware culture hunter-gatherer complex on Gotland. Fifty-two muscle and ligament attachments on seven skeletal elements were scored on adult skeletal remains (n = 126) from the five Middle Neolithic Pitted Ware sites at Ajvide, Västerbjers, Visby, Ire and Fridtorp. Noteworthy differences were observed in MSM mean scores between the sexes as well as significantly increased scores with increased age. Distributions for ten selected grave goods categories were also examined for the adult individuals as well as for 50 subadult individuals. The grave goods frequencies showed the opposite pattern from that of MSM: young individuals had higher frequencies of the selected grave goods than the old, and females generally more than males. Burial find distributions also differ at the five sites, as well as faunal refuse proportions, while isotopic data indicate homogeneous subsistence all over the island. Circumstances surrounding the faunal remains in graves and surrounding cultural layers indicate site-specific utilisation, but also ritual handling of animals. An image of common identity on the island and membership of the local community is visible in the material culture. In addition, individual differences are apparent through MSM patterns and grave goods, but not in direct correlation to activities implied by the artefacts in the grave.
The occurrence of osteoarthritis (OA) as an indicator of physical activity was explored in two Middle Neolithic samples from Gotland (c. 3400-2300 BC) in the Baltic Sea: Ajvide (n = 46) and Vasterbjers (n = 32). The difficulty in diagnosing OA is recognised and only eburnation was used as a definite criterion for OA. The relationship between eburnation lesions and Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM) was investigated particularly in relation to age, but also with reference to patterns of sex, body side and site. Results show that increasing prevalence of eburnation as well as increased MSM scores was highly correlated with age. In the combined sample, females exhibited higher frequencies of eburnation, while total MSM mean scores were higher in males. Significantly higher MSM mean scores were also found in those individuals with eburnation lesions. Vasterbjers exhibited higher frequencies of eburnation as well as higher mean MSM scores, which in part may be explained by the difference in age distribution at the two sites. However, the differences in both eburnation and MSM patterns between the sexes, and between age groups as well as between the two sites indicate that other factors also have to be considered. These may include genetic predisposition and possibly activity, although, a direct link (other than age) between eburnation and MSM was difficult to discern.
The present detailed taphonomic study deals with faunal remains from the Middle Neolithic site of Fräkenrönningen, located in Eastern Middle Sweden. Archaeological excavations in 1993 revealed the remnants of eight hut-structures and several different features spread over approximately 1500 m2. Large amounts of pottery and stone artefacts were recovered together with approximately 14.6 kg of burnt faunal remains. Our specific aim was to examine the depositional patterns of burnt bones at the site; the diversity between the huts and the sub-areas between the huts. Spatial patterns of seal and fish bones as well as that of the anatomical representation of seals were investigated.The refuse disposal patterns were spatially organised, and some site areas exhibited large refuse agglomerations of burnt bones. Most faunal remains were recovered immediately outside of the huts. The size of the huts did not correspond with absolute amounts of refuse. Both large and small huts showed a variation in amount of bones. The bones of harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) and ringed seal (Phoca hispida) were deposited in all areas of the site, showing a rather similar anatomical representation in all areas. The size of the huts was associated with the composition of the faunal remains. The huts in the western area were smaller in size than those in the eastern area, and they exhibited a higher frequency of fish bones. Interestingly, the fish bones showed the most marked variability between the different areas of the site. The largest amounts of fish bones were deposited in a restricted area of the north-western part of the site, in association with three of the huts. The present study highlights the importance of detailed taphonomic studies of fishbone.
A total of 11 340 Cartesian coordinates of 42 homologous landmarks on five excavated human crania were recorded by three observers using a three-dimensional (3D) digitiser and computer models created with a 3D laser scanner. The aim was to compare the errors of the coordinate data of landmarks of different types recorded with these two techniques. The results showed that digitiser-based and 3D model-based coordinate measurements had overall standard deviations of, respectively, +/- 0.79 and +/- 1.05 mm. However, the 3D digitiser yielded the most precise coordinate data for landmarks defined primarily by biological criteria (Type I landmarks), while the 3D laser scanner models yielded the most precise coordinate data for landmarks defined primarily by geometric criteria (Type III landmarks). These findings are likely to influence the research design of future craniometric studies, as they indicate that the suitability of certain landmark types as reference points for geometric operations, such as partial Procrustes analysis, depends on the method by which they are measured. This information is particularly important for retrospective research or for combined databases such as FORDISC or CRANID, which may integrate different types of landmarks recorded by different researchers and/or instruments. Crania displaying poor preservation and surface discoloration yielded larger measurement errors, especially for the 3D model measurements. This is not surprising given that landmarks on 3D models cannot be located using tactile means, but have to be located solely on a visual basis. Nonetheless, even though the digitiser measurements exhibit an overall precision slightly greater than the 3D model measurements, both techniques yield coordinate data with a precision sufficient for most craniometric research.
Frequencies of maxillary sinusitis in the population of the medieval town Sigtuna, Sweden, were examined. The first aim was to explore the occurrence of sinus conditions in this urban population, and the second was to investigate the effects of preservation in relation to these changes. The skeletal sample consisted of 274 adolescent and adult individuals buried ca 970-1530AD. The maxillary sinuses were examined for different types of skeletal change related to sinusitis. The severity and location of these changes were recorded, together with the preservation of the sinus. When the diagnostic criteria for bone preservation from previous studies was used, i.e. the preservation of at least one complete antral floor, the results showed that 97.7% (n=157) of the individuals were affected, with older individuals showing more severe bone changes. In the entire (i.e. more fragmented) sample, 94.5% (n=259) showed signs of sinusitis. Again, older individuals showed more severe bone changes, and males were more frequently affected. Also, an increased frequency over time was found. The maxillae were subdivided into groups of bone preservation, and the results showed that there was a significant relation between preservation and the registered presence and severity of sinusitis. The results may be used as a cautionary note against investigating the occurrence of maxillary sinusitis without considering the skeletal preservation factor. There was no correlation between preservation and sex or age groups. This suggests that the differences between younger and older and male and female were not a result of preservation alone and could be considered as trustworthy.
A number of papers have provided insight in frequencies of violence related trauma, especially skull trauma, in northern European skeletal assemblages dating to the Neolithic and Bronze Age. Although the cases are often well described, they lack further discussion about the consequences of skull trauma for the injured individual and the implications for the surrounding society, especially considering severe skull trauma leading to traumatic brain injuries (TBI). In this paper we address questions of trauma and care for one individual associated with the Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe Culture who suffered from two severe ante-mortem skull traumas probably leading to brain injuries. These questions are addressed using the web-based application and analytic tool Index of care. We found that daily care, both short term with basic needs like nutrition and grooming, and long term with cognitive impairments, was available in the Neolithic society. Considering the frequent number of ante-mortem skull trauma in Neolithic and Bronze Age skeletal assemblages TBI was probably a common phenomenon. We argue that the care provided was a necessity for survival and maintenance of a socially sustainable society.