Restarting stalled replication forks is vital to avoid fatal replication errors. Previously, it was demonstrated that hydroxyurea-stalled replication forks use an active restart mechanism or rescue replication by new origin firing. Using the DNA fiber assay, we find to our surprise no evidence that UV-damaged replication forks are arrested and only detect a slightly reduced fork speed on a UV-damaged template. Interestingly, no evidence for UV-induced fork stalling was observed even in translesion synthesis defective, Polη^mut cells. In contrast, using an assay to measure DNA molecule elongation at the fork, we observe that DNA elongation is severely blocked, particularly in UV-damaged Polη^mut cells. In conclusion, these data suggest that UV-blocked replication forks restart effectively through re-priming. If left unfilled, the gap behind a re-primed fork may collapse into a DNA double-strand break that is repaired by a recombination pathway, similar to the fate of replication forks collapsed after hydroxyurea treatment.

UV-induced DNA damage cause an efficient block for elongating replication forks. Since CHK1 has been shown to stabilise replication forks following hydroxyurea treatment, we wanted to test if the increased killing with the unspecific kinase inhibitor caffeine, inhibiting ATM and ATR amongst other kinases, is explained by inability to activate the CHK1 kinase to stabilise UV-stalled replication forks. For this, we used cells deficient in Polη, a translesion synthesis polymerase capable of properly bypassing the UV-induced cis-syn TT pyrimidine dimer, which blocks replication. These cells, derived from the variant type of xeroderma pigmentosum, are sensitised to UV irradiation by caffeine treatment. We demonstrate that both caffeine and CHK1 inhibition, using CEP-3891, equally retards replication fork elongation after UV treatment in Polη deficient cells. Interestingly, we found more pronounced UV-sensitisation by caffeine than with the CHK1 inhibitor in clonogenic survival experiments. Furthermore, we demonstrate an increased collapse of UV-stalled forks after caffeine treatment, but not after CHK1 inhibition, demonstrating that CHK1 activity is not required for stabilisation of UV-stalled replication forks. These data suggest that stabilisation and elongation at UV-stalled forks are distinct mechanisms, and that CHK1 is only involved in fork elongation. 

The MUS81 endonuclease was initially identified in resonse to UV and MMS lesions, and has been implicated in replication fork collapse after exposure to cross-linking agents. After stalling of replication forks by hydroxyurea treatment, the forks collapse independently of MUS81 but the endonuclease is required for replication fork restart. However in cells deficient in the Werner helicase, MUS81 is needed for collapse of replication forks after hydroxyurea treatment, indicating that the endonuclease might play a role in replication fork collapse in cells with impaired replication. UV irradiation induces DNA damage that physically block replication fork elongation but may be bypassed by translesion synthesis polymerases. Here we have investigated the role of MUS81 after UV irradiation of human fibroblasts deficient in Polη, and restored (wild-type) cells. We show that in wild-type cells, depletion of MUS81 does not affect survival after UV irradiation. However in Polη deficient cells, MUS81 depletion further lowers the survival after exposure to UV. In spite of this, replication forks collapse in UV irradiated Polη deficient cells independently of MUS81.

Chromatin structure and function is influenced by histone posttranslational modifications. SET8 (also known as PR-Set7 and SETD8) is a histone methyltransferase that monomethylates histone H4-K20. However, a function for SET8 in mammalian cell proliferation has not been determined. We show that small interfering RNA inhibition of SET8 expression leads to decreased cell proliferation and accumulation of cells in S phase. This is accompanied by DNA double-strand break (DSB) induction and recruitment of the DNA repair proteins replication protein A, Rad51, and 53BP1 to damaged regions. SET8 depletion causes DNA damage specifically during replication, which induces a Chk1-mediated S-phase checkpoint. Furthermore, we find that SET8 interacts with proliferating cell nuclear antigen through a conserved motif, and SET8 is required for DNA replication fork progression. Finally, codepletion of Rad51, an improtant homologous recombination repair protein, abrogates the DNA damage after SET8 depletion. Overall, we show that SET8 is essential for genomic stability in mammalian cells and that decreased expression of SET8 results in DNA damage and Chk1-dependent S-phase arrest.

In vertebrate cells the five RAD51 paralogs (XRCC2/3, RAD51B/C/D) enhance the efficiency of homologous reocmbination repair (HRR). Stalling and breakage of DNA replication forks is a common event in the large genomes of higher eukaryotes. When cells are exposed to agents that arrest DNA replicaiton, such as hydroxyurea or aphidicolin, fork breakage can lead to chromosomal aberrations and cell killing. We assessed the contribution of the HRR protein RAD51D in resistance to killing by replication-associated DSBs. In repsonse to hydroxyurea, the isogenic rad51d null CHO mutant fails to show any indication of HRR initiation, as assessed by induction of RAD51 foci, as expected. Surprisingly, these cells have normal resistance to killing by replication inhibition from either hydroxyurea or aphidicolin, but show the expected sensitivity to camptothecin, which also generates replication-dependent DSBs. In contrast, we confirm that the V79 xrcc2 mutant does show increased sensitivity to hydroxyurea under some conditinos, which was correlated to its attenuated RAD51 focus response. In response to a PARP1 inhibitor PARP1, rad51d cells, like other HRR mutants, show exquisite sensitivity (>1000 fold), which is also associated with defective RAD51 focus formation. Thus, rad51d cells are broadly deficient in RAD51 focus formation in response to various agents, but this defect is not invariably associated with increased sensitivity. Our results indicate that RAD51 paralogs do not contribute equally to cellular resistance of inhibitors of DNA replication, and that the RAD51 foci associated with replication inhibition may not be a reliable indicator of cellular resistance to such agents.