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Enhancing Air Traffic Management: Weather and Controller Workload Challenges
Linköping University, Department of Science and Technology, Communications and Transport Systems. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7804-9328
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Air Traffic Management (ATM) faces significant challenges in ensuring efficiency, safety, and sustainability. Among these, weather conditions and Air Traffic Controller (ATCO) workload play crucial roles in overall system performance. Adverse weather frequently disrupts operations, leading to inefficient flight trajectories, increased fuel consumption, and environmental impact. It also elevates ATCO workload, thereby complicating ATCOs’ ability to maintain safe and efficient air traffic flow. This thesis explores data-driven and analytical approaches to address these challenges, focusing on the impact of weather on flight efficiency, airspace capacity, and ATCO scheduling in remote tower centers. Additionally, it examines ATCO workload prediction using behavioral and physiological data. The study covers applications in airspace capacity management, staff scheduling, and ATCO workload assessment.

The thesis examines historical flight and weather data from Stockholm Arlanda and Gothenburg Landvetter airports over a two-year period (2019–2020), revealing persistent inefficiencies in arrival operations despite the overall reduction in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic. It presents a methodology grounded in statistical analysis to identify the key factors influencing arrival performance, with particular emphasis on the impact of adverse weather conditions and traffic intensity. The proposed approach systematically determines the most influential variables affecting arrival performance in both the horizontal and vertical flight dimensions.

Adverse weather conditions, such as convective weather, can lead to restrictions on aircraft movements, reduce available routes, and necessitate adjustments in ATM strategies. As a result, understanding and predicting weather-related impacts on airspace capacity is essential for optimizing air traffic flow and minimizing delays. In this thesis, we develop a methodology, based on the continuous maxflow/mincut theory, to estimate reductions in Air Traffic Control (ATC) sector capacity due to predicted convective weather activity. The uncertainty in meteorological forecasts is quantified using Ensemble Weather Forecasting. We demonstrate the application of this methodology for assessing congestion in ATC sectors, using a realistic sector and a full sector configuration as examples. Additionally, we introduce a probabilistic framework for presenting congestion status, aimed at supporting decision-making processes at the Flow Management Position.

The thesis presents probabilistic models that incorporate the impact of adverse weather conditions into a Mixed-Integer Linear Programming framework for ATCO shift scheduling in remote and conventional towers. Building on previous project developments, these models specifically address the influence of weather on ATCO operations in remote towers. Probabilistic weather products are used to generate ensembles of staffing solutions, enabling the derivation of probability distributions for the required number of ATCOs. The modeling approach leverages recently developed techniques to tackle challenges associated with weather uncertainty. The proposed solutions are validated using historical flight and weather data from five Swedish airports designated for future remote operation.

The final part of this thesis focuses on developing unobtrusive methods for predicting ATCO workload by exploring the feasibility of non-intrusive data collection techniques combined with machine learning algorithms. Eye-tracking data, previously identified as a promising indicator of ATCO workload, were collected from controllers in simulated environments and used as predictive features. Subjective workload assessments, based on self-reported Cooper-Harper scale ratings, serve as label variables. Multiple machine learning models are evaluated for workload prediction, and feature selection techniques are applied to identify a minimal yet effective set of eye-tracking features. This approach provides a seamless, non-intrusive means of continuously assessing workload, making it a valuable tool for both research and operational applications in ATC environments.

By addressing critical challenges in ATM, this thesis contributes to a safer, more efficient, and environmentally sustainable air transport system. The findings of this thesis have significant implications for the future of ATM, particularly in an era of increasing air traffic demand and evolving weather challenges. The integration of data-driven techniques, optimization, and probabilistic modeling offers a powerful framework for improving decision-making in ATM. The methodologies proposed in this thesis can serve as a foundation for future research and industry applications, enabling continuous improvements in ATM performance and resilience against external disruptions.

Abstract [sv]

Lufttrafikledning (ATM) står inför betydande utmaningar när det gäl-ler att säkerställa effektivitet, säkerhet och hållbarhet. Väderförhål-landen och flygtrafikledarnas (ATCO) arbetsbelastning spelar en avgörande roll för det övergripande systemets prestanda. Ogynnsamma väderförhållanden stör ofta verksamheten, vilket leder till ineffektiva flygvägar, ökad bränsleförbrukning och miljöpåverkan. Det medför även en ökad arbetsbelastning för ATCO, vilket försvårar deras förmåga att upprätthålla ett säkert och effektivt trafikflöde. Denna avhandling undersöker datadrivna och analytiska metoder för att han-tera dessa utmaningar, med fokus på vädrets inverkan på flygeffektivitet, luftrumskapacitet och ATCO-planering i fjärrstyrda torncentraler. Dessutom analyseras ATCO-arbetsbelastningsprognoser baserade på beteendemässiga och fysiologiska data. Studien omfattar tillämpningar inom luftrumskapacitetshantering, personalplanering och bedömning av ATCO:s arbetsbelastning.

Studien analyserar historiska flyg- och väderdata från Stockholm Arlanda och Göteborg Landvetter flygplatser under en tvåårsperiod (2019–2020) och belyser kvarstående ineffektivitet trots minskad trafik under COVID-19-pandemin. Denna avhandling presenterar en metodik baserad på statistisk analys för att identifiera de viktigaste faktorerna som påverkar olika aspekter av ankomstprestanda, med särskilt fokus på effekterna av ogynnsamt väder och trafikintensitet. Den föreslagna metoden identifierar specifikt de mest betydande faktorerna som påverkar ankomstprestanda i både horisontella och vertikala dimensioner.

Ogynnsamma väderförhållanden, såsom konvektivt väder, kan leda till restriktioner för flygrörelser, minska tillgängliga rutter och kräva justeringar av ATM-strategier. Därför är det avgörande att förstå och förutsäga väderrelaterade effekter på luftrumskapaciteten för att optimera lufttrafikflödet och minimera förseningar. I denna avhandling utvecklar vi en metodik, baserad på den kontinuerliga maxflow/mincut-teorin, för att uppskatta minskningar i flygtrafikled-ningens (ATC) sektorkapacitet till följd av förutspådd konvektiv väderaktivitet. Osäkerheten i meteorologiska prognoser kvantifieras med hjälp av ensembleväderprognoser. Vi demonstrerar tillämpningen av denna metodik för att bedöma trängsel i ATC-sektorer, med exempel på en realistisk sektor och en fullständig sektorkonfiguration. Vi introducerar dessutom ett probabilistiskt ramverk för att presentera trängselstatus, med syfte att stödja beslutsprocesser vid flödeshanteringspositionen.

Studien presenterar probabilistiska modeller som integrerar effekten av ogynnsamma väderförhållanden i ett blandat heltalslinjärt optimeringsramverk för ATCO-skift-schemaläggning i både fjärrstyrda och konventionella torn. Dessa modeller hanterar specifikt vädrets inverkan på ATCO:s arbete i fjärrstyrda torn genom att bygga vidare på tidigare projektutvecklingar. Probabilistiska väderprodukter används för att generera ensemblelösningar för bemanning, vilket möjliggör härledning av sannolikhetsfördelningar för det nödvändiga antalet ATCO:er. Denna modellansats utnyttjar nyligen utvecklade tekniker för att hantera utmaningar kopplade till väderosäkerhet. De föreslagna lösningarna valideras med hjälp av historiska flyg- och väderdata från fem svenska flygplatser som är utpekade för framtida fjärrstyrd drift.

Den sista delen av denna avhandling fokuserar på att utveckla diskreta metoder för att förutsäga ATCO:s arbetsbelastning genom att undersöka möjligheterna med icke-intrusiva datainsamlingstekniker i kombination med maskininlärningsalgoritmer. Ögonrörelsedata, som tidigare har identifierats som en lovande indikator för ATCO:s arbetsbelastning, samlades in från flygtrafikledare i simulerade miljöer och användes som prediktiva variabler. Subjektiva arbetsbelastnings-bedömningar, baserade på självskattade Cooper-Harper-skattningar, användes som målvariabler. Flera maskininlärningsmodeller utvärderades för att förutsäga arbetsbelastning, och tekniker för variabelurval tillämpades för att identifiera en minimal men effektiv uppsättning av ögonrörelsevariabler. Denna metod möjliggör en sömlös och icke-intrusiv kontinuerlig bedömning av arbetsbelastning, vilket gör den till ett värdefullt verktyg både för forskning och operativa tillämpningar inom flygtrafikledning.

Denna avhandling bidrar till ett säkrare, mer effektivt och miljömässigt hållbart lufttransportsystem genom att hantera kritiska utmaningar inom ATM. Resultaten har stor betydelse för framtidens ATM, särskilt i en tid med ökande efterfrågan på lufttrafik och föränderliga väderutmaningar. Integrationen av datadrivna tekniker, optimering och probabilistisk modellering erbjuder ett kraftfullt ramverk för att förbättra beslutsfattandet inom ATM. De metoder som föreslås i denna avhandling kan fungera som en grund för framtida forskning och industriella tillämpningar, vilket möjliggör kontinuerliga förbättringar av ATM:s prestanda och motståndskraft mot externa störningar.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2025. , p. 65
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2451
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-213322DOI: 10.3384/9789181181050ISBN: 9789181181043 (print)ISBN: 9789181181050 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-213322DiVA, id: diva2:1954844
Public defence
2025-05-30, K3, Kåkenhus, Campus Norrköping, Norrköping, 13:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Funding: This research was funded by SESAR JU under the European Union´s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 783287), and supported by the Swedish Transport Agency (Transportstyrelsen) and the in-kind participation of LFV. Part of the research was conducted within the project On WorkLoad Measures (OWL), funded by the Swedish Transport Administration (Trafikverket), under reference TRV 2022/33636r.

Available from: 2025-04-28 Created: 2025-04-28 Last updated: 2025-04-28Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Identification of Significant Impact Factors on Arrival Flight Efficiency within TMA
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Identification of Significant Impact Factors on Arrival Flight Efficiency within TMA
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2020 (English)Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

An important step towards improving the flight performance within Terminal Maneuvering Area (TMA) is the identification of the factors causing inefficiencies. Without knowing which exact factors have high impact on which performance indicators, it is difficult to identify which areas could be improved. In this work, we quantify the flight efficiency using average additional time in TMA, average time flown level and additional fuel consumption associated with the inefficient flight profiles. We apply statistical learning methods to assess the impact of different weather phenomena on the arrival flight efficiency, taking into account the current traffic situation. We utilize multiple data sources for obtaining both historical flight trajectories and historical weather measurements, which facilitates a comprehensive analysis of the variety of factors influencing TMA performance. We demonstrate our approach by identifying that wind gust and snow had the most significant impact on Stockholm Arlanda airport arrivals in 2018

National Category
Computer and Information Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-169123 (URN)
Conference
ICRAT 2020
Available from: 2020-09-09 Created: 2020-09-09 Last updated: 2025-04-28Bibliographically approved
2. Arrival flight efficiency in pre- and post-Covid-19 pandemics
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Arrival flight efficiency in pre- and post-Covid-19 pandemics
2023 (English)In: Journal of Air Transport Management, ISSN 0969-6997, E-ISSN 1873-2089, Vol. 107, article id 102327Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Covid-19 pandemic affected aviation severely, resulting in unprecedented reduction of air traffic. While aviation is slowly re-gaining traffic volumes, we use the opportunity to study the arrival performance in the Terminal Maneuvering Area (TMA) in non-congested scenarios. Applying flight efficiency and environmental performance indicators (PIs) to the historical data of arrivals to Stockholm Arlanda and Gothenburg Landvetter airports, we discover noticeable inefficiencies, despite significant reduction of traffic intensity. We analyze the impact of such factors as weather and traffic intensity on arrival efficiency in isolated scenarios when only one factor dominates: isolated scenario with low traffic and isolated scenario with good weather conditions. Our analysis uncovers that weather has a stronger influence than traffic intensity on the vertical efficiency, while traffic intensity has stronger effect on the lateral efficiency. Impact of traffic intensity on the lateral efficiency might be explained by frequent hold-on patterns and flight trajectory extensions due to vectoring in high traffic conditions. Further investigation is needed to explain weather and vertical/lateral efficiency correlations, the conclusions might be country-specific.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
ELSEVIER SCI LTD, 2023
Keywords
TMA performance; Arrival flight efficiency; Continuous descent operations; Fuel consumption; Key performance indicators; Weather impact
National Category
Other Civil Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-191358 (URN)10.1016/j.jairtraman.2022.102327 (DOI)000901804500001 ()36408128 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|SESAR Joint Undertaking under the European Union [783287]; Swedish Transport Agency (Transportstyrelsen); Swedish Transport Administration (Trafikverket)

Available from: 2023-01-30 Created: 2023-01-30 Last updated: 2025-04-28
3. Probabilistic Analysis of Airspace Capacity in Adverse Weather Scenarios
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Probabilistic Analysis of Airspace Capacity in Adverse Weather Scenarios
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2022 (English)Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-209419 (URN)
Conference
Sesar Innovation Days 2022
Available from: 2024-11-12 Created: 2024-11-12 Last updated: 2025-04-28
4. Integrating weather impact in air traffic controller shift scheduling in remote and conventional towers
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Integrating weather impact in air traffic controller shift scheduling in remote and conventional towers
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2022 (English)In: EURO Journal on Transportation and Logistics, ISSN 2192-4376, E-ISSN 2192-4384, Vol. 11Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Weather affects the work of air traffic controllers, however, for staff scheduling in Remote Tower Centers (RTCs) it has not been taken into account. We study the impact of various weather phenomena on air traffic controller (ATCO) taskload through structured interviews with ATCOs. We deduce taskload-driven impact factors and the corresponding thresholds for the intensity of the weather phenomena at several Swedish airports. To account for the uncertainty in the weather prediction, we obtain probabilistic weather data from Ensemble Prediction Systems (EPSs). Then we adjust our prior Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) model for RTC staff scheduling to account for uncertain impactful weather occurrences and yield a distribution for the necessary number of ATCOs for RTC staff scheduling. Our framework can be used for conventional towers as well. We quantify the impact of weather by comparing the number of controllers necessary to operate at five Swedish airports from a remote tower during two example days in 2020, with and without taking weather events into account. In our calculations we use historical weather and flight data to show that ignoring weather impact may lead to significant understaffing at a RTC.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2022
Keywords
ATCO workload; Weather; RTC staff scheduling
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-185424 (URN)10.1016/j.ejtl.2022.100076 (DOI)000795089300003 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Transport Administration (Trafikverket); SESAR JU under the European Union [783287]

Available from: 2022-06-03 Created: 2022-06-03 Last updated: 2025-04-28

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