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Withdrawing and Withholding Treatments: Normative and Psychological Challenges in Healthcare Priority Setting
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Society and Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9561-2859
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

When medical treatments are not deemed cost-effective, given considerations of e.g., needs and severity, and therefore denied reimbursement, the treatment is commonly withheld from all future patients. However, should the treatment also be withdrawn from patients who have gained early access to it? Previous normative analyses and clinical guidelines suggest that treatments should be equally rationed by both withdrawing and withholding, but empirical studies and policy practices indicate that withholding is more acceptable than withdrawing. It has been suggested that psychological difficulties associated with withdrawing cause this discrepancy, but this remains a hypothesis rather than an experimentally tested explanation.

The overall aim of the thesis is to explore ethical and psychological aspects of withdrawing treatments in relation to cost-effectiveness, given that withholding is justified. In addition, there is an ambition to formulate ethically justified reimbursement recommendations that account for psychological factors in human judgement and decision-making. The specific research questions are:

  • What are physicians’ and patient organisation representatives’ experiences and perceptions of withdrawing and withholding treatments in rationing situations due to relative scarcity? (Paper I).
  • To what extent do people express an ethical difference between withdrawing and withholding treatments in reimbursement decisions?(Papers II + III).
  • How do different possibly morally relevant circumstances shape support for rationing by withdrawing and withholding? (Papers II + III).
  • What could be a balanced and justified approach to withdrawing and withholding treatments in healthcare priority setting? (Paper IV).

In Paper I, an interview study was conducted with physicians and patient organisation representatives. In Papers II and III, two experiments tested differences in acceptance of rationing treatments by withdrawing and withholding. In addition, Paper II presents the importance of decision level (policy or bedside), while Paper III presents the importance of different potentially morally relevant circumstances previously identified in Paper I. Paper IV presents a normative analysis, using a reflective equilibrium process, to formulate balanced and justified recommendations on how to withdraw and withhold treatments in reimbursement decisions.

Paper I showed nuanced perceptions of withdrawing and withholding treatments. In some respects, the two rationing types were deemed ethically equivalent, while in other respects, they were considered ethically inequivalent. Paper II found that 18% of participants accepted withdrawing treatments at the policy level, compared to 29% acceptance for withholding treatments at the policy level and 25% acceptance for withdrawing treatments at the bedside level. Paper III found no general difference in acceptance between withdrawing and withholding treatments. However, differences emerged when analysing specific circumstances, where withholding was viewed as more problematic than withdrawing in four out of eleven circumstances. Across Papers II and III, the overall support for rationing was low. Paper IV analysed the ethical acceptability of withdrawing treatments, given that withholding is acceptable, as well as the ethical acceptability of providing patients with early access to treatments financed by the healthcare system. It is suggested that withdrawing treatments is ethically acceptable, but when patients are granted early access, a practice where physicians inform patients that the treatment will be withdrawn if it does not get reimbursed is required.

The main conclusions of the thesis can be summarised as follows:

  • In some respects, treatment withdrawal is deemed as ethically equivalent to withholding, while in other aspects, it is deemed as ethically more problematic (Paper I)
  • When presented with a detailed vignette of the rationing situation, people express withdrawing to be less acceptable than withholding (Paper II). However, when presented with short and concise statements, no general difference is perceived (Paper III).
  • Withdrawing is deemed more acceptable at the bedside level than at the policy level (Paper II). However, different circumstances can render withholding equally, and sometimes even more, unacceptable than withdrawing (Paper III).
  • An ethically balanced and justified approach to withdrawing and withholding treatments is that: if withholding is acceptable, then withdrawing is too; early access is in principle problematic; but if early access is to be given, physicians must inform patients that the treatment will be withdrawn if it does not get reimbursed (Paper IV).
Abstract [sv]

När medicinska behandlingar inte bedöms vara kostnadseffektiva, givet att bedömningen exempelvis tagit hänsyn till behov och svårighetsgrad, och därmed nekas ersättning, sätts vanligtvis inte behandlingen in för framtida patienter. Bör behandlingen då även avslutas för patienter som fått tidig tillgång till den? Tidigare normativa analyser och kliniska riktlinjer föreslår att behandlingar ska avslutas och inte sättas in på ett likvärdigt sätt. Däremot visar empiriska studier och policypraxis att det är mer accepterat att inte sätta in behandlingar än att avsluta dem. En möjlig förklaring är att de psykologiska svårigheterna med att avsluta behandlingar orsakar denna skillnad, men än så länge är detta bara en hypotes och inte en experimentellt testad förklaring.

Syftet med avhandlingen är att utforska etiska och psykologiska aspekter kring att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar i relation till kostnadseffektivitet, givet att det är acceptabelt att inte sätt in behandling. Det finns även en ambition om att formulera etiskt rättfärdiga rekommendationer vid ersättningsbeslut, som tar hänsyn till psykologiska faktorer i mänskligt omdöme och beslutsfattande. De specifika forskningsfrågorna är:

  • Vad är läkares och patientorganisationsrepresentanters erfarenheter av och uppfattningar om att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar i ransoneringsbeslut kopplade till relativ knapphet? (Delstudie I).
  • I vilken utsträckning uttrycker folk en etisk skillnad mellan att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar i ersättningsbeslut? (Delstudier II + III).
  • Hur påverkar olika potentiellt moraliskt relevant omständigheter stöd för att ransonera genom att avsluta och inte sätta in (Delstudier II + III).
  • Vad skulle vara ett balanserat och rättfärdigt tillvägagångssätt att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar inom hälso- och sjukvårdsprioriteringar? (Delstudie IV).

I Delstudie I genomfördes en intervjustudie med läkare och patientorganisationsrepresentanter. I Delstudie II och III genomfördes två experimentella studier som testade skillnader i acceptans för att ransonera behandlingar genom att avsluta och inte sätta in. Delstudie II undersökte även vikten av beslutsnivån (policy eller patientnära) medan Delstudie III undersökte vikten av olika potentiellt moraliskt relevanta omständigheter som tidigare identifierats i Delstudie I. I Delstudie IV genomfördes en normativ analys, genom att använda sig av en ”reflektivt ekvilibrium”-process, för att formulera rekommendationer om att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar i samband med ersättningsbeslut.

Delstudie I visade nyanserade uppfattningar om att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar, i vissa aspekter sågs de två sätten att ransonera behandlingar som etiskt likvärdiga, medan i andra aspekter sågs de som etiskt olikvärdiga. Delstudie II visade att 18% ansåg det acceptabelt att avsluta behandlingar på policynivå, jämfört med 29% som accepterade att inte sätta in behandlingar på policynivå och 25% som accepterade att avsluta behandlingar på en patientnära nivå. Delstudie III visade ingen generell skillnad i acceptans mellan att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar. Däremot framkom det skillnader när specifika omständigheter analyserades, där att inte sätta in sågs som mer problematiskt än att avsluta under fyra av elva omständigheter. Genom Delstudie II och III var det generella stödet för ransonering lågt. Delstudie IV analyserade den etiska acceptansen av att avsluta behandlingar, given att det är acceptabelt att inte sätta in. Studien undersökte också den etiska acceptansen av att ge patienter tidig tillgång till behandlingar som finansieras av hälso- och sjukvårdssystemet. Det föreslås att avsluta behandlingar är etiskt acceptabelt, men när patienter får tidig tillgång behövs även en praktik där läkaren informerar patienten om att behandlingen kommer att avslutas om behandlingen får ett negativt ersättningsbeslut.

Avhandlingens huvudslutsatser kan sammanfattas som:

  • I vissa aspekter ses avslut och inte sätta in som etiskt likvärdiga, medan i andra aspekter ses avslut som etiskt mer problematiskt (Delstudie I)
  • När folk är presenterade för en vinjett som beskriver en ransoneringssituation utrycker de att avsluta är mindre acceptabelt än att inte sätta in (Delstudie II). När folk är presenterade för korta och koncisa påståenden utrycker de ingen generell skillnad (Delstudie III)
  • Att avsluta behandlingar är mer acceptabelt på en patientnära nivå än på policynivån (Delstudie II). Däremot under vissa omständigheter kan inte sätta in vara likvärdigt, och ibland även mer, oacceptabelt än att avsluta (Delstudie III).
  • Ett etiskt balanserat och rättfärdigat tillvägagångssätt att avsluta och inte sätta in behandlingar är: om inte sätta in är acceptabelt så är avsluta också det; tidig tillgång är i princip problematiskt; men om tidig tillgång ska ges måste läkaren informera patienter om att behandlingen kommer att avslutas om den får ett negativt ersättningsbeslut (Delstudie IV).
Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2025. , p. 66
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1969
Keywords [en]
Equivalence thesis, Empirical ethics, Reflective equilibrium, Behavioural experiment, Health care rationing, Health policy.
National Category
Medical Ethics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-213109DOI: 10.3384/9789181180084ISBN: 9789181180077 (print)ISBN: 9789181180084 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-213109DiVA, id: diva2:1952845
Public defence
2025-05-23, Belladonna, building 511, Campus US, Linköping, 13:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-04-16 Created: 2025-04-16 Last updated: 2025-04-16Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Withdrawing or withholding treatments in health care rationing: an interview study on ethical views and implications
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Withdrawing or withholding treatments in health care rationing: an interview study on ethical views and implications
2022 (English)In: BMC Medical Ethics, E-ISSN 1472-6939, Vol. 23, no 1, article id 63Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background When rationing health care, a commonly held view among ethicists is that there is no ethical difference between withdrawing or withholding medical treatments. In reality, this view does not generally seem to be supported by practicians nor in legislation practices, by for example adding a grandfather clause when rejecting a new treatment for lacking cost-effectiveness. Due to this discrepancy, our objective was to explore physicians and patient organization representatives experiences- and perceptions of withdrawing and withholding treatments in rationing situations of relative scarcity. Methods Fourteen semi-structured interviews were conducted in Sweden with physicians and patient organization representatives, thematic analysis was used. Results Participants commonly express internally inconsistent views regarding if withdrawing or withholding medical treatments should be deemed as ethically equivalent. Participants express that in terms of patients need for treatment (e.g., the treatments effectiveness and the patients medical condition) withholding and withdrawing should be deemed ethically equivalent. However, in terms of prognostic differences, and the patient-physician relation and communication, there is a clear discrepancy which carry a moral significance and ultimately makes withdrawing psychologically difficult for both physicians and patients, and politically difficult for policy makers. Conclusions We conclude that the distinction between withdrawing and withholding treatment as unified concepts is a simplification of a more complex situation, where different factors related differently to these two concepts. Following this, possible policy solutions are discussed for how to resolve this experienced moral difference by practitioners and ease withdrawing treatments due to health care rationing. Such solutions could be to have agreements between the physician and patient about potential future treatment withdrawals, to evaluate the treatments effect, and to provide guidelines on a national level.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BMC, 2022
Keywords
Reimbursement; Disinvestment; Qualitative research; Priority setting; Equivalence thesis; Sweden
National Category
Medical Ethics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-186819 (URN)10.1186/s12910-022-00805-9 (DOI)000815483600001 ()35751123 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare [FORTE 2019-01101]; Linkoping University

Available from: 2022-07-05 Created: 2022-07-05 Last updated: 2025-04-16
2. Withdrawing versus Withholding Treatments in Medical Reimbursement Decisions: A Study on Public Attitudes
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Withdrawing versus Withholding Treatments in Medical Reimbursement Decisions: A Study on Public Attitudes
Show others...
2024 (English)In: Medical decision making, ISSN 0272-989X, E-ISSN 1552-681X, Vol. 44, no 6, p. 641-648Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BackgroundThe use of policies in medical treatment reimbursement decisions, in which only future patients are affected, prompts a moral dilemma: is there an ethical difference between withdrawing and withholding treatment?DesignThrough a preregistered behavioral experiment involving 1,067 participants, we tested variations in public attitudes concerning withdrawing and withholding treatments at both the bedside and policy levels.ResultsIn line with our first hypothesis, participants were more supportive of rationing decisions presented as withholding treatments compared with withdrawing treatments. Contrary to our second prestated hypothesis, participants were more supportive of decisions to withdraw treatment made at the bedside level compared with similar decisions made at the policy level.ImplicationsOur findings provide behavioral insights that help explain the common use of policies affecting only future patients in medical reimbursement decisions, despite normative concerns of such policies. In addition, our results may have implications for communication strategies when making decisions regarding treatment reimbursement.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sage Publications, 2024
Keywords
experiment, priority setting, health policy, equivalence thesis
National Category
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy Economics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-205746 (URN)10.1177/0272989x241258195 (DOI)001252816000001 ()38912645 (PubMedID)
Funder
Forte, Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare, Forte
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare (Forte) [19-01101]

Available from: 2024-07-01 Created: 2024-07-01 Last updated: 2025-04-16

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