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Assessing the sustainability of on-site sanitation systems using multi-criteria analysis
Luleå University of Technology, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Architecture and Water.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6463-7284
Luleå University of Technology, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Architecture and Water.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9541-3542
Department of Civil Engineering and Urban Planning, National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9473-4034
Division of the Built Environment, Research Institutes of Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9072-7868
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2019 (English)In: Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, ISSN 2053-1400, E-ISSN 2053-1419, Vol. 5, p. 1599-1615Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Small on-site sanitation systems are widely present in suburban and rural areas in many countries. As these systems often underperform and have an impact on receiving waters, understanding their overall sustainability is of interest for policy and decision-makers. However, the definition and estimation of indicators defining sustainability are challenging, as it is finding the methodological approach to combine qualitative and quantitative indicators into one comprehensive assessment. In this study, twelve indicators defined by environmental, economic, social, technical and health-related criteria were used to compare nine alternatives of on-site sanitation for single households. A non-compensatory method for multi-criteria decision analysis, ELECTRE III, was used for the assessment together with weights assigned to each indicator by a reference group. Several scenarios were developed to reflect different goals and a sensitivity analysis was conducted. Overall, the graywater–blackwater separation system resulted as the most sustainable option and, in terms of polishing steps for phosphorus removal, chemical treatment was preferred over the phosphorus filter, both options being implemented together with sand filters. Assessing the robustness of the systems was a crucial step in the analysis given the high importance assigned to the aforementioned indicator by the stakeholders, thus the assessment method must be justified. The proposed multi-criteria approach contributes to aid the assessment of complex information needed in the selection of sustainable sanitation systems and in the provision of informed preferences.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2019. Vol. 5, p. 1599-1615
Keywords [en]
ELECTRE III, package plant, phosphorus removal, sand filter, small-scale, source separation
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-75465DOI: 10.1039/c9ew00425dISI: 000482436200009Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85071305578OAI: oai:DiVA.org:ltu-75465DiVA, id: diva2:1341695
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 942-2015-758
Note

Validerad;2019;Nivå 2;2019-09-13 (johcin)

Available from: 2019-08-09 Created: 2019-08-09 Last updated: 2023-08-25Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Small Sanitation Systems – Treatment Efficiency, Sustainability and Implementation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Small Sanitation Systems – Treatment Efficiency, Sustainability and Implementation
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Alternative title[sv]
Små avloppssystem – Funktion, hållbarhet och implementering
Abstract [en]

Current socio-technical wastewater system paradigms are being challenged by emerging global issues such as climate change, environmental degradation and scarcity of resources. Thus, exploration of innovative new urban water management solutions is required that enable closure of resource loops. On-site and decentralised wastewater systems are seen as emerging solutions, partly because of their flexibility, as they increase the potential for recovery and reuse of resources like nutrients. At the smallest scale, on-site wastewater treatment systems are widely present in rural and peri-urban areas globally. However, they often do not meet acceptable levels of nutrient and bacterial discharge, thereby contributing to environmental degradation and health risks. The overall aim of this doctoral dissertation is to improve knowledge and understanding of small sanitation systems in terms of treatment processes and efficiency, their sustainability and implementation. At a greater scale, the dissertation explores the historical and current contexts that have shaped, and are shaping, the existing wastewater sector, dominated by large-scale centralised mixed wastewater collection and treatment, and barriers to implementation of alternative, innovative sanitation solutions with higher resource recovery capacities, like source separating systems.

Sixteen full scale on-site facilities for wastewater treatment in Sweden were investigated in the research the thesis is based upon, including sand filters and package plants. Sand filters followed by alkaline phosphorus filters showed good removals of organic matter and high P-removal capacity (>92%). Six (of 11) investigated package plants showed >78% phosphorus removal (including chemical precipitation and alkaline phosphorus filters as treatment steps). Nitrogen removal was generally low in the package plants, likely because of the low average temperatures, and appeared to be mainly mediated by sedimentation of particulate organic nitrogen. Denitrification was observed to a limited extent in facilities with effective water/sludge recirculation. High densities of indicator bacteria were found in the effluent of most facilities as the removal rates were low, often exceeding the EU Bathing Water Directive’s limits for excellent water quality in terms of intestinal enterococci and Escherichia coli. Levels of pharmaceuticals detected in the effluent of package plants were within the range or higher than previously reported in effluents from conventional wastewater treatment plants, and included anti-inflammatories, β-blockers, ACE inhibitors, anticonvulsants and antidepressants. Effluent concentrations of phthalates were below those previously reported in the literature.

A scenario analysis comparing nine on-site sanitation options suggested that source separation of greywater and blackwater and urine diversion were the most sustainable options when nutrient removal and recycling were highly prioritised. A conventional sand filter or drain field were the most sustainable options when nutrient removal and recycling were less prioritised and, (in combination with chemical P-removal) when CO2 emissions and energy use and recovery were important aspects.

When planning wastewater services for a given area, results of interviews with water professionals confirmed the general trend to opt for a centralising approach, whenever technically feasible, by installing pumping stations and connecting sewer pipes to a main treatment plant, in contrast to building decentralised systems. Reasons mentioned by the interviewees included the robustness of the system, simplicity of operation and maintenance and protection of the receiving waters. Identified barriers hindering implementation of alternative sanitation solutions with focus on resources recovery included factors categorized as legislative factors (lack of requirements and law interpretation), technical factors (immature technologies, uncertainties), organizational factors (lack of initiative, competence and experience) and economic factors (financial limitation, lack of incentives). From a historical perspective, strong governmental control and continuous enforcement of environmental requirements drove the expansion and strengthened the domination of the large-scale centralised sanitation system. Alternative sanitation systems with higher resource recovery capacities have received less attention and institutional support, and their shortcomings were constantly highlighted during the period covered by a historical review (1974-2015).

Abstract [sv]

Nuvarande sociotekniska paradigmer för avloppsvattensystem utmanas av nya globala frågor som klimatförändringar, miljöbelastning och resursbrist. Därför behöver innovativa nya lösningar för vattenhantering i städerna som möjliggör cirkulation av resurser. utforskas. Små och decentraliserade avloppsvattensystem ses som framväxande lösningar, delvis på grund av sin flexibilitet, eftersom de ökar potentialen för återvinning och återanvändning av resurser såsom näringsämnen. I den mindre skalan finns lokala enskilda avloppssystem på landsbygden och i utkant av städer globalt. Dock uppfyller de små avloppssystemen inte acceptabla reningsnivåer vilket bidrar till negativ miljöpåverkan och hälsorisker. Det övergripande syftet med denna doktorsavhandling är att öka kunskapen om små avloppssystem när det gäller reningseffektivitet, hållbarhet och implementering. I avhandlingen utforskas också de historiska likväl som aktuella sammanhang som har format och formar den befintliga avloppssektorn, och dess dominans av storskalig centraliserad hantering av avloppsvatten. Även hinder för implementering av alternativa, innovativa sanitetslösningar med högre potential för resursrecirkulering har studerats.

Sexton fullskaliga markbäddar och minireningsverk undersöktes i denna avhandling. Markbäddar med efterföljande alkaliska fosforfilter visade på god rening av organiskt material och hög fosforavskiljning (>92%). Sex av elva undersökta minireningsverk inklusive kemisk fällning eller alkaliska fosforfilter visade på >78% fosforreduktion. Kväveavskiljningen var generellt låg i minireningsverken, till viss del på grund av de låga medeltemperaturerna, och reningen verkade huvudsakligen ske genom sedimentation av partikulärt organiskt kväve. Viss denitrifikation observerades i anläggningar med vatten/slamrecirkulation. Höga halter av indikatorbakterier analyserades i avloppsvattnet från de flesta anläggningarna och ofta överskreds EU:s badvattendirektivs gränser för utmärkt vattenkvalitet gällande intestinala enterokocker och Escherichia coli. De nivåer av läkemedel som uppmättes i avloppsvattnet från minireningsverken låg inom intervallet eller högre än tidigare rapporterade halter i avloppsvatten från konventionella avloppsreningsverk, vilket inkluderade antiinflammatoriska medel, β-blockerare, ACE-hämmare, antiepileptika och antidepressiva medel. Däremot var utsläppskoncentrationerna av ftalater lägre än de som tidigare rapporterats.

En scenarioanalys som jämförde nio alternativ för enskilda avloppslösningar indikerade att källsortering av gråvatten och svartvatten alternativt urinsortering var de mest hållbara alternativen när rening och recirkulering av näringsämnen prioriterades högt. En konventionell markbädd eller infiltrationsbädd var de mest hållbara alternativen när rening och återföring av näringsämnen var mindre prioriterade, och i kombination med kemisk fosforrening, när CO2-utsläpp, energianvändning och energiåtervinning var viktiga aspekter.

Vid planering av avloppsvattentjänster för ett visst område bekräftade resultaten från intervjuer med yrkesverksamma den allmänna trenden att välja centraliserade lösningar, närhelst det är tekniskt möjligt, genom att installera pumpstationer och ansluta avloppsledningar till ett huvudreningsverk, istället för att bygga decentraliserade system. Skäl som nämnts av intervjupersonerna var bland annat det centrala systemets robusthet, drift- och underhållaspekter samt skydd av recipienter. Identifierade barriärer som hindrar implementering av alternativa sanitetslösningar med fokus på resursåtervinning rör lagstiftning (brist på krav och lagtolkning), teknik (omogen teknologi, osäkerheter), organisation (brist på initiativ, kompetens och erfarenhet) samt ekonomi (finansiella begränsningar, brist på incitament). Ur ett historiskt perspektiv drevs utvecklingen avloppssystemen av en stark statlig kontroll och kontinuerlig efterlevnad av miljökrav som stärkte dominansen av det storskaliga centraliserade systemet. Alternativa avloppssystem med högre resursåtervinningskapacitet har fått mindre uppmärksamhet och institutionellt stöd, och deras brister uppmärksammades ständigt under den studerade perioden (1974-2015).

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Luleå: Luleå University of Technology, 2022
Series
Doctoral thesis / Luleå University of Technology 1 jan 1997 → …, ISSN 1402-1544
Keywords
Sustainable sanitation, sand filter, phosphorus filter, package plant, cold climate, treatment process, system analysis, sustainability indicators, decentralization, centralization, historical development, on-site, resource recovery, source separation, source-separating systems, blackwater, urine, greywater, hållbarthetsanalys, små avlopp system, enskilda avlopp, markbädd, minireningsverk, kallt klimat, systemanalys, fosforfälla, fosforfilter, indikator, urin sortering, svartvatten, toalettvatten, gråvatten, BDT
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-92702 (URN)978-91-8048-131-1 (ISBN)978-91-8048-132-8 (ISBN)
Public defence
2022-10-21, A117, Luleå tekniska universitet, Luleå, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2022-08-30 Created: 2022-08-30 Last updated: 2022-11-28Bibliographically approved

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