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Towards a broader use of phototesting: in research, clinical practice and skin cancer prevention
Linköping University, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Dermatology and Venerology. Linköping University, Faculty of Health Sciences.
2007 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

In western societies, skin cancer incidence has increased dramatically over recent decades, due predominantly to increased sun exposure habits. Ultraviolet (UV) light exposure and individual light sensitivity of the skin constitute two important factors affecting the risk for skin cancer development. Individuals with a heightened propensity to get sunburnt have a higher risk for skin malignancies, and need to protect themselves more systematically from the sun. Individual UVlight sensitivity can be determined either by self-estimation of tendency to burn and tan, as in the Fitzpatrick’s classification, or by use of a phototest. Although phototesting constitutes a considerably more objective method, it is only sparsely used, chiefly due to financial and resource related factors, and is mainly limited to investigation of photodermatoses or dose-management in photo therapy.

The general aim of this thesis was to develop and improve aspects of the phototest procedure in rder to broaden the utilisation of phototesting within the fields of research, clinical practice and skin cancer prevention. As a first step, a new phototesting technique, using a divergent UVB beam was evaluated. The principle of the method is to provoke a circular UVB-erythema in the skin, the diameter of which is related to the administered dose and thus the Minimal Erythema Dose (MED). In a test group of healthy subjects, naked eye reading by a trained observer resulted in a more exact, estimation of UVB-sensitivity, compared to traditional phototesting. Since the diffuse border of the provoked erythema was challenging for the untrained observer to read, the need for an objective, bio-engineering technique for test reading was clear. In this thesis, Laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) has been used. This data also enabled an objective description of doseresponse for the reaction, an outcome not possible in traditional testing. The divergent beam method was also shown to be useful as a model for evaluation of the effect of topically applied substances.

In order to broaden the utilisation of phototests in general, a test procedure built on patient performed self-reading of skin tests (a traditional phototest and an irritant patch test) was evaluated. The reliability of these self-readings was shown to be substantial when compared to the control readings of a trained observer.

Using the self-reporting procedure, phototesting was evaluated as a tool in primary prevention of skin cancer. The study focussed on sun habits and sun protection behaviour, and also on investigating the impact of different forms of presentation of the preventive information. Results showed significantly higher impact for a personally mediated preventive message than by letterform. For individuals with heightened UV-sensitivity the performance of a phototest led to a greater tendency to adopt sun protection behaviour than for subjects with a lower UV-sensitivity, suggesting that phototesting is a useful way to improve the outcome in terms of preventive behaviours for this group of susceptible, at-risk individuals.

Divergent beam phototesting, patient-performed self-reading, and the application of phototesting in skin cancer prevention emerge as three novel, previously little investigated, aspects of phototesting, for which promising results could be demonstrated.

Abstract [sv]

Under de senaste årtiondena har insjuknandet i hudcancer ökat dramatiskt i västvärlden, detta till stor del beroende på förändrade solvanor. Exponering för solens ultravioletta strålning (UVstrålning) samt den individuella ljuskänsligheten i huden utgör två viktiga faktorer av betydelse för uppkomsten av hudcancer. Individer med ökad benägenhet att bli rödbrända i solen löper också ökad risk för hudcancer av solexponering, och behöver således vara extra noga med att skydda sig mot solen. Hur känslig man är mot solljuset kan bedömas antingen genom självskattning (klassificering enligt Fitzpatrick), eller genom att använda ett ljustest. Det sistnämnda är en betydligt mer objektiv metod, men används ändå relativt sparsamt, sannolikt ofta beroende på brist på resurser, tid eller klinisk rutin.

Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingen var att utveckla och förbättra aspekter på ljustestningsförfarandet med inriktning på att kunna bredda användningen av ljustest inom forskning, klinisk verksamhet och hudcancerprevention. Som ett första steg undersöktes och utvärderades en ny ljustestteknik, baserad på en divergent (spridd) UV-stråle. Genom att belysa huden med ett cirkulärt UV-ljusfält framkallas en cirkulär rodnad (erytem), där diametern på rodnaden står i relation till den individuella ljuskänsligheten i huden. I jämförelse med traditionell ljustestningsmetodik visade sig metoden resultera i en noggrannare uppskattning av ljuskänslighet, samt möjligheten att beskriva ett dos-responsförhållande inom det rodnade hudområdet. Eftersom kanten på den framkallade rodnaden tenderade att bli ganska diffust avgränsad framkom dock, med undantag för speciellt tränade avläsare, svårigheter att läsa av testet med enbart ögats hjälp. Av den anledningen krävdes mer objektiv, hudfysiologisk mätmetodik. I de genomförda studierna användes så kallad Laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) för detta. Förutom uppskattning av ljuskänsligheten testades den divergenta UV-strålen också som modell för skattning av anti-inflammatorisk effekt av ämnen som appliceras på huden, exempelvis cortison, och visade sig användbar för detta.

I syfte att öka förutsättningarna för bredare användning av ljustest, genomfördes en studie där försökspersonerna själva fick avläsa ett traditionellt ljustest och rapportera in testresultatet. Resultaten jämfördes med avläsningar utförda av en kunnig avläsare, och visade på god tillförlitlighet.

Slutligen, med hjälp av den beskrivna självavläsningsproceduren, undersöktes i en primärvårdspopulation, om ljustestning kan vara användbart för att förebygga hudcancer, med inriktning på att påverka individers solvanor, solskyddsbeteende och attityder gentemot solning. I studien jämfördes även olika modeller för att presentera ett preventionsbudskap, och där ett muntligt sådant, förmedlat vid ett läkarbesök, hade ett betydligt bättre genomslag än motsvarande, enbart skriftlig, information. För individer med hög ljuskänslighet bidrog ljustestet till ökat solskyddsbeteende, vilket indikerar att ljustest skulle kunna vara ett användbart verktyg i eftersträvan att förebygga hudcancer speciellt i denna grupp av individer med förhöjd hudcancerrisk.

Sammanfattningsvis utgör ljustestning med divergent UV-stråle, självavläsning av ljustest samt användning av ljustest vid hudcancerprevention tre nya, tidigare sparsamt undersökta aspekter på ljustestning, för vilka den här avhandlingen visar lovande resultat.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Institutionen för klinisk och experimentell medicin , 2007. , p. 66
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1024
Keywords [en]
Phototesting, divergent beam, skin cancer prevention, self-reading, minimal erythema dose, sun protection behaviour
National Category
Dermatology and Venereal Diseases
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-10378Libris ID: 8lp6mr8t67s3x077ISBN: 978-91-85895-62-5 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-10378DiVA, id: diva2:17123
Public defence
2007-11-30, Aulan, Hälsans hus, Campus US, Linköpings universitet, Linköping, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2007-12-05 Created: 2007-12-05 Last updated: 2023-02-14
List of papers
1. Phototesting based on a divergent beam: a study on normal subjects
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Phototesting based on a divergent beam: a study on normal subjects
2001 (English)In: Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, ISSN 0905-4383, E-ISSN 1600-0781, Vol. 17, no 4, p. 189-196Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In a previous publication from our group, phototesting based on a single exposure to a divergent UVB beam with radially decreasing irradiance values was suggested. The aim of the present study was to evaluate technical, practical and biological aspects of the suggested method in normal subjects. Twenty healthy volunteers were provoked on the back with both a collimated beam (four fixed doses, in circular areas with a diameter of 1.5 cm) and the divergent beam (a continuous, radially attenuating dose spectrum covering an area with a diameter of 4.5 cm). Eleven of the subjects were subjected to double provocation with the divergent beam. Assessment was carried out at 6 and 24 h after exposure by measuring the diameter of the reactions both visually and by mapping the skin blood flow change with laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI). Minimal erythemal dose (MED) was determined for both the collimated and the divergent provocation. The reaction diameters were used to decide MED by combination to a mm for mm mapped dose spectrum of the divergent beam profile. Dose-response curves were plotted using the quantitative response data of the LDPI-images against the corresponding dosimetry data. No systematic difference could be proven between LDPI and visual diameters and a 95% confidence interval for the mean difference was calculated to (-0.8, 2.0). Slightly greater diameters were found at the visual assessment performed at 6 h compared to 24 h (95% confidence interval (-0.1, 2.8)). Double provocation showed a good reproducibility both for the visual and the LDPI assessment (P<0.05). The divergent beam provocation allowed a more detailed discrimination of MED compared to the collimated beam provocation. The MED values determined with the divergent beam were, however, generally higher, especially in the lower range of MED values. Technical factors related to the beam divergence and the correct measurement of erythemal effective irradiance are believed to be the explanation for this phenomenon, which is thus correctable. In conclusion, the results from this study support our belief that the phototesting protocol based on a divergent beam constitutes a good opportunity for improved phototesting, since MED and dose-response characteristics may be extracted in more detail from a single UV exposure.

National Category
Medical and Health Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-12817 (URN)10.1034/j.1600-0781.2001.170409.x (DOI)
Available from: 2007-12-05 Created: 2007-12-05 Last updated: 2017-12-14
2. Inter-observer variability in reading of phototest reactions with sharply or diffusely delineated borders
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Inter-observer variability in reading of phototest reactions with sharply or diffusely delineated borders
2008 (English)In: Skin research and technology, ISSN 0909-752X, E-ISSN 1600-0846, Vol. 14, no 4, p. 397-402Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: In both clinical and experimental phototesting, naked eye assessment of erythema has been the main assessment parameter. As with all subjective assessment, variability in recorded results due to variable circumstances around the performance and reading of tests influences reliability and utility of data whether they be interpreted for an individual patient or for a group of research subjects.

Methods: In the present study, variability in the reporting of diameter of ultraviolet B (UVB) erythema has been studied. The erythematous reactions were assessed by the naked eye and with the help of a millimetre-graded ruler by a group of dermatologists and dermatological trainees. Reaction size, objectively quantified by means of laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) using thresholding of the reaction perfusion, and known size of UVB provocation were used as yardsticks in order to quantify this variability.

Results: Agreement between observers, against known size, was excellent for reactions with a sharp border, but for reactions with a diffuse or indistinct border there was a substantial inter-observer variability. This was also true for the comparison between naked-eye reading and LDPI assessment of the reaction size.

Conclusion: It is concluded that if naked-eye readings are to be the outcome measurement, then provocations/protocols producing distinct borders are an advantage. If borders between provoked and unprovoked skin can be expected to be diffuse, i.e. part of a continuum of response, the use of objective, bioengineering techniques such as LDPI is required. Quantitative methods are also the basis for more detailed presentation and interpretation of test results including information on dose response above the minimal erythema dose.

Keywords
erythema, phototesting, UVB, LDPI, observer variability
National Category
Medical and Health Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-12818 (URN)10.1111/j.1600-0846.2008.00305.x (DOI)
Available from: 2007-12-05 Created: 2007-12-05 Last updated: 2017-12-14
3. Phototesting with a divergent UVB beam in the investigation of anti-inflammatory effects of topically applied substances
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Phototesting with a divergent UVB beam in the investigation of anti-inflammatory effects of topically applied substances
2003 (English)In: Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, ISSN 0905-4383, E-ISSN 1600-0781, Vol. 19, no 4, p. 195-202Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Phototesting based on a single exposure to a divergent ultraviolet B (UVB) beam with radially decreasing UVB doses can be used to determine an individual's minimal erythema dose (MED). Laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) data can be combined with dosimetry data to produce objective dose–response plots in addition to the MED. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the divergent beam protocol could be used to demonstrate and quantify the anti-inflammatory effects of clobetasol diproprionate (Dermovate®), pharmaceutical-grade acetone and a gel vehicle, applied after skin provocation by UVB.

Method: Sixteen Caucasian subjects were illuminated with the divergent beam on three areas close together on the left side of their upper backs. Two of the provoked areas on each subject were treated with acetone, gel vehicle or Dermovate®, and one area was left untreated as a control. Skin blood perfusion was assessed 6 and 24 h after UVB illumination using LDPI. The reaction diameter, the mean perfusion, and the average dose–response plots for each group and treatment were extracted from the LDPI data.

Results: Application of the topical steroid clobetasol diproprionate after UVB provocation markedly decreased the inflammatory response. Acetone and the gel vehicle also showed mild anti-inflammmatory effects in two of the parameters but not for the mean perfusion response. The mean diameter differences between controls and treated reactions had predominantly positive 99% confidence intervals. Analysis of the dose–response data at doses higher than the MED showed a linear relationship (0.89≤R2≤0.98) for all reactions but with lower gradients in treated reactions, mostly marked for clobetasol diproprionate.

Conclusions:  The divergent beam protocol can be used to demonstrate and quantify the effects of topical agents on the UVB reaction, in terms of reaction diameter, mean perfusion and changes in dose–response characteristics. The dose–response approach seems to be applicable even in diagnostic testing of an individual patient's response to UVB.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Inc., 2003
Keywords
acetone, anti-inflammatory effects, clobetasol diproprionate, erythema, gel vehicle, laser Doppler perfusion imaging, phototesting.
National Category
Microbiology in the medical area
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-12819 (URN)10.1034/j.1600-0781.2003.00037.x (DOI)000184575000006 ()2-s2.0-0042925506 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2007-12-05 Created: 2007-12-05 Last updated: 2018-01-13Bibliographically approved
4. Can patients read their own UVB minimal erythema dose and irritant skin tests
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Can patients read their own UVB minimal erythema dose and irritant skin tests
2010 (English)Article in journal (Refereed) Submitted
National Category
Medical and Health Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-12820 (URN)
Available from: 2007-12-05 Created: 2007-12-05 Last updated: 2012-03-27
5. Prevention of skin cancer in primary health care: an evaluation of three different prevention effort levels and the applicability of a phototest
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Prevention of skin cancer in primary health care: an evaluation of three different prevention effort levels and the applicability of a phototest
2008 (English)In: European Journal of General Practice, ISSN 1381-4788, E-ISSN 1751-1402, Vol. 14, no 2, p. 68-75Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background/objective: The high skin cancer incidence in western society, and its known association with sun exposure habits, makes the area an important target for prevention. We investigated, in a primary healthcare setting, differentiated levels of prevention efforts directed at the propensity of the patient to change his/her sun habits, sun protection behaviour, and attitudes, after information intervention. Additionally, the impact of the performance of a phototest to determine individual sun sensitivity was evaluated. Methods: 308 patients visiting a primary healthcare centre in southern Sweden completed a questionnaire concerning sun habits, sun protection behaviour, and attitudes, and were randomized into one of three groups, representing increasing levels of prevention effort in terms of resources. Feedback on their questionnaire and general preventive sun protection advice was given, in the first group by means of a letter, and in the second and third groups by a doctor's consultation. Group 3 also underwent a phototest, with a self-reading assessment and a written follow-up of the phototest result. Change of sun habits, behaviour, and attitudes, based on the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change and on Likert scale scorings, was evaluated after 6 months, by a repeated questionnaire. Results: Prevention mediated by a doctor's consultation had a clearly better impact on the subjects. The addition of a phototest did not further reinforce this effect in the group as a whole, but it did for a subgroup of individuals with high ultraviolet (UV) sensitivity, as determined by the phototest itself, suggesting that this might actually be a tool to improve outcome in this high-risk group. Conclusion: A personal doctor's consultation is a valuable tool in the effective delivery of preventive information in the general practice setting. In individuals with high UV-sensitivity and thus high risk for skin cancer the performance of a photo-test reinforces a positive outcome in habits, behaviour and attitudes.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
London, UK: Informa Healthcare, 2008
Keywords
Skin cancer prevention; phototesting; behavioural change; self-assessment; questionnaire
National Category
Medical and Health Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-12821 (URN)10.1080/13814780802423430 (DOI)
Available from: 2007-12-05 Created: 2007-12-05 Last updated: 2017-12-14Bibliographically approved

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